AN INVESTIGATION INTO ATTITUDES TOWARDS WARER POLLUTION IN THE SHUSWAP LAKE AREA OF BRITISH COLUMBIA pot

AN INVESTIGATION INTO ATTITUDES TOWARDS WATER PCLLUTION I N Tm SHUSWAP LAKE ARJ3A OF BRITISH COLUMBIA.. BY James Alistair McVey M,A... 14 The Study Area... LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES... Wi

AN INVESTIGATION INTO ATTITUDES TOWARDS WATER PCLLUTION I N Tm SHUSWAP

LAKE ARJ3A OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

BY James Alistair McVey

M,A (hons ) , st, Andrews U n i v e r s i t y , 1967

A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE FU3QUIREmNTS FOR THE DEGFEE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

i n t h e Department

of Geography

SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY December 1973

All r i g h t s r e s e r v e d , T h i s t h e s i s may n o t be reproduced

i n whole o r i n p a r t , by photocopy o r o t h e r means, w i t h o u t

p e r m i s s i o n of t h e a u t h o r

An I n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o Attitudes Towards Water Pollution i n the Shuswap Lake Area of B r i t i s h Columbia

Examining C omrnittee :

Chairman: E J Hickin

T d ' ~ i o r d a n Senior Supervisor

M.E E l i o t Hurst

R.C Brown

M.L Barker

PARTIAL COPYRICllT LICENSE

( d a t e )

ABSTRACT

During t h e summer of 1969 a n a p p a r e n t d e c l i n e i n w a t e r

q u a l i t y i n Shuswap Lake became a h o t l y debated p o l i t i c a l

i s s u e i n t h e Salmon A r m a r e a of B r i t i s h Columbia The

purpose of t h i s s t u d y was t o i n v e s t i g a t e p u b l i c awareness

w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h e x p e r i e n c e i n water-

o r i e n t e d r e c r e a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s and a c t i v e involvement i n community a f f a i r s , and ( b ) t h a t a s e n s e of p o l i t i c a l e f f i c a c y i n coping

w i t h community problems w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h

e x p e r i e n c e i n w a t e r - o r i e n t e d r e c r e a t i o n

a c t i v i t i e s and a c t i v e involvement i n community a f f a i r s ,

debate was a t i t s peak and t h e r e was widespread l o c a l concern

f o r t h e f u t u r e q u a l i t y of t h e lake

The r e s u l t s of t h e study show t h a t awareness, knowledge and expressed concern f o r water q u a l i t y problems a r e i n t e r -

r e l a t e d I n t u r n , t h e s e a r e l i n k e d t o personal experiences

i n t h e use of water through r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ,

involvement i n community a f f a i r s , and a sense of p o l i t i c a l

e f f i c a c y i n coping with community problems, These bonds a r e

a l l connected t o socio-economic s t a t u s , which seems t o a c t

as a s u r r o g a t e f o r t h e more important v a r i a b l e s of experience, community a c t i v i t y and p o l i t i c a l e f f i c a c y i n i n f l u e n c i n g

preferences f o r water q u a l i t y improvement,

The r e s u l t s a l s o suggest t h a t t h e information channel(s) between t h e e l e c t o r s and t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s i s extremely weak, with l o c a l d e c i s i o n makers g e n e r a l l y unaware o f p u b l i c opinion about l o c a l environmental i s s u e s , but g i v i n g t h e

impression t h a t t h e i r a c t i o n s a r e conducted i n t h e b e s t

i n t e r e s t s of t h e communities they r e p r e s e n t ,

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE CHAPTER I

The r i s e of concern over environmental q u a l i t y 1

A t t i t u d e s r e l a t i n g t o environmental q u a l i t y i s s u e s 8 Environmental q u a l i t y as a p o l i t i c a l i s s u e 14 The Study Area 19

The Problem: e u t r o p h i c a t i o n 2 1

P o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l p o l i c y i n B r i t i s h Columbia 27 Municipal f i n a n c i n g f o r environmental p r o j e c t s 29

The sewage t r e a t m e n t and water q u a l i t y i s s u e i n

Salmon A r m 9

Statement of t h e problem 34 CHAPTER II SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS 37

and frequency of c o n t a c t w i t h water b o d i e s 49

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between awareness of w a t e r q u a l i t y

and community a c t i v i t y 58

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between s o c i a l a c t i v i t y and o p i n i o n

of t h e p o l i t i c a l e f f i c a c y of i n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n 64

r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of p u b l i c meetings

as an i n f o r m a t i o n source 60 16.Belief i n an a l g a e bloom problem on Shuswap Lake

r e l a t e d t o qembership i n an i n t e r e s t group 61 17.Importance of water p o l l u t i o n as a community

p o l l u t i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of p u b l i c

meetings as an i n f o r m a t i o n source 66 22.Membership i n an a c t i o n group r e l a t e d t o b e l i e f i n

t h e e f f i c a c y of such a c t i v i t y 67 23.Attendance a t p u b l i c meetings r e l a t e d t o b e l i e f i n

t h e e f f i c a c y of such a c t i v i t y 67 24.Mernbership of an i n t e r e s t group r e l a t e d t o agree-

ment w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t "To c o n t r o l p o l l u t i o n on

Shuswap would be t o o expensive t o be worthwhile." 68

25 Membership i n an i n t e r e s t group r e l a t e d t o t h e

b o a t i n g h a b i t s of t h e r e s i d e n t s 69 26,Membership i n an i n t e r e s t group r e l a t e d t o t h e

f i s h i n g h a b i t s of t h e r e s i d e n t s 69 27.Agreement w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t "To c o n t r o l p o l l u t i o n

on Shuswap would be t o o expensive t o be worthwhilett

r e l a t e d t o t h e b o a t i n g h a b i t s of t h e r e s i d e n t s 70 28.Agreement w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t I1To c o n t r o l p o l l u t i o n

on Shuswap Lake would be t o o expensive t o be worth- whilew r e l a t e d t o t h e f i s h i n g h a b i t s of t h e

r e s i d e n t s 71 29.0pinions concerning t h e s e r i o u s n e s s of w a t e r p o l l u -

t i 0 n i n B C 73 30.0pinion concerning Shuswap Lake w a t e r q u a l i t y 73 31.0pinion concerning f u t u r e Shuswap Lake w a t e r

q u a l i t y 73 32,The importance of i n d u s t r y a s a s o u r c e of w a t e r

p o l l u t i o n i n t h e Shuswap Lake a r e a 74

33,The importance of s e p t i c t a n k s as a s o u r c e of water

p o l l u t i o n i n t h e Shusmap Lake a r e a 74 34.Agreement w i t h t h e s t a t e m e n t ItTo c o n t r o l p o l l u t i o n

on Shuswap Lake would be t o o expensive t o be worth-

w h i l e O t t 75 35.Mernbership i n an i n t e r e s t group 76

v i i i

LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES

CHAPTER 1 THE RISE OF CONCERN OVER ENVIRONFiENTAL QUALITY

The r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f an achievement-

o r i e n t e d s o c i e t y , while c r e a t i n g a n e a g e r l y s o u g h t - a f t e r

a f f l u e n c e , have p l a c e d e x c e s s i v e q u a n t i t a t i v e demands upon

o u r environment h a s i n r e c e n t decades l e d t o a concern f o r environmental c p a l i t y .' Outdoor r e c r e a t i o n , s p o r t , and t r a v e l , made p o s s i b l e by t h i s i n c r e a s i n g a f f l u e n c e , have begun t o

make demands o f o u r environment t h a t , f r e q u e n t l y c o n f l i c t i n g with t h o s e o f i n d u s t r y , r e q u i r e c l e a n a i r and w a t e r and

u n s p o i l t scenery Such i n t a n g i b l e elements, being by def-

i n i t i o n l e s s e a s y t o d e f i n e , have n e c e s s i t a t e d changes i n

t r a d i t i o n a l methods o f r e s o u r c e management A s White sugg-

e s t s , * t h e scope o f r e s o u r c e management h a s been s t e a d i l y

widening and must continue t o do s o i n o r d e r t h a t a g r e a t e r

p r o p o r t i o n o f s o c i e t y may s h a r e enjoyment o f t h a t which i s

b e a u t i f u l i n t h e n a t u r a l environment

From t h e e a r l i e s t o f t i m e s , men o f enlightenment have

been aware t h a t some k i n d o f c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s

J a r r e t t , H e , (edJ , Environmental Q u a l i t y i n a grow in^, Economy, John Hopkins P r e s s , Baltimore, 1966, I n t r o d u c t i o n

White, G.F., A l t e r n a t i v e s i n Water Management, National Academy o f S c i e n c e s , National Research Council, Washington,

D C , 1966, p 6

between man and n a t u r e and have n e v e r c e a s e d t o s p e c u l a t e

upon t h e n a t u r e o f t h a t r e l a t i ~ n s h i ~ ~ It was n o t u n t i l t h e Nineteenth Century, however, when men o f v i s i o n f i n a l l y r e c - ognized t h e t h r e a t t o o u r environment posed by t h e tremendous rate o f development i n s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y , t h a t t h e con-

s e r v a t i o n concept t r u l y developedO4 I n s p i r e d by men such as

M a r ~ h , ~ many became aware o f t h e need t o b a l a n c e t h e many d i f f -

e r e n t and c o n f l i c t i n g demands upon t h e environment I n h i s now c l a s s i c work, Marsh warned t h a t f u r t h e r d i s t u r b i n g o f t h e

b a l a n c e between man and n a t u r e would have e x t r e m e l y s e r i o u s long-term e f f e c t s upon human b e i n g s themselves

The fundamental aims and i d e a l s o f t h e o r i g i n a l con-

s e r v a t i o n movement a r e s t i l l w i t h u s I n i t s p r e s e n t form, however, t r a d i t i o n a l North American v a l u e s and g o a l s have

been e v a l u a t e d i n t h e l i g h t o f t h e s i g n s o f environmental

d e t e r i o r a t i o n s o o b v i o u s i n t h e 1960Ts The development of

t h e s c i e n c e o f e c o l o g y h a s f o c u s s e d , p a r t l y t h r o u g h t h e a c t -

i v i t i e s o f t h e mass media, p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n upon t h e concept

o f t h e Ecosystem, a system t h a t s t r e s s e s t h e complex b i o l o g i c a l

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s upon which a l l forms o f l i f e , i n c l u d i n g

See Glacken, C.J., T r a c e s on t h e Rhodian S h o r e ,

Los Angeles, U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1967

See Burton, I., & R.W Katas ( e d s ) , Readin s i n

Resource Management and Conservation, Chicag&ty o f

a i c a g o P r e s s , 1965, pp 1 5 5 - 226

See G.P Marsh, Man and Nature, New York, S c r i b n e r * s,

1864 Also, Glacken, C J , "lhe o r i g i n s o f t h e Conservation

P h i l o s o p h y w , i n J o u r n a l o f S o i l and Water C o n s e r v a t i o n ,

Vol X I , No 2 , '1956

man h i m s e l f , depende6 The views o f t h e e c o l o g i s t s 7 have

been widely published and it i s perhaps due t o t h e i r i n -

f l u e n c e t h a t much o f t h e emphasis o f t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n

movement h a s , t o some e x t e n t , " s h i f t e d from a n t h r o p o c e n t r i c

t h i n k i n g t o a more humble, e c o l o g i c a l concept i n which man

is but one organism i n a mutually dependent system o f

organisms W The p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n o f c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t s

do not accept t h a t t h e environment i s f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r

a l l men t o u s e , but t h a t i t s u s e should be balanced a g a i n s t

o t h e r non-economic needs Such a philosophy, f i n d i n g wide

p o p u l a r i t y i n an age o f widespread i n t e l l e c t u a l and a e s t h e t i c

p r o t e s t ( a g a i n s t t h e Vietnam war, racism, t h e c o r p o r a t e e l i t e , and o t h e r r e a d i l y - a c c e p t e d v a l u e s o f previous decades) does

n o t hold t h a t t h e economic development o f t h e landscape i s

an i d e a l end i n i t s e l f Economic development and growth may

The ecosystem, a term f i r s t proposed by Tansley i n

1935, i s d e f i n e d a s comprising t h e i n t e r a c t i n g , l i v i n g and non-living, elements i n a p a r t i c u l a r h a b i t a t

For example s e e : Bates M , Man i n Nature, Englewood

C l i f f s , N J P r e n t i c e - H a l l 1964; The F o r e s t and t h e Sea,

New York, Random House, 19b0;

Commoner, B., Science and S u r v i v a l , New York, Viking

P r e s s , 1966 ; The Closing C i r c l e , New York, Knopf, 1971 ;

E h r l i c h , P R , and A .H , P o p u l a t i o n , Resources,

Environment, San F r a n c i s c o , Freeman, 1970 ;

Watt, K.E.F., Ecol and Resource Mana~ement,

New York, McGraw-Hill, 19

Lacey, M J , "Man, Nature and t h e E c o l o g i c a l Perspect

The p r e s e n t c o n s e r v a t i o n movement, t h e r e f o r e , s e e k s a

r e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e n a t i o n ' s g o a l s and v a l u e s The most

i m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e g o a l s have been viewed as b e i n g both

"incompatible and h i e r a r c h i c a l i n p r i o r i t y n ,9 a s F i g u r e 1 demonstrates The a t t e n t i o n g i v e n t o t h e g o a l s l o w e r i n

t h e h i e r a r c h y depends upon t h e degree t o which t h e more

i m p o r t a n t g o a l s a r e met; t h e new c o n s e r v a t i o n i s t s , t h e v o i c e s

o f whom a r e becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y v o c a l ( a i d e d , t o a con-

s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , by t h e a t t e n t i o n s o f t h e media) wish t o

s e e environmental q u a l i t y and e c o l o g i c a l harmony i n b a l -

ance w i t h , r a t h e r t h a n s u p p l a n t e d by, economic growth and

lo See Fleischmann, P , nConservetion: The B i o l o g i c a l

F a l l a c y n , i n Landscape, Vol 18, No 2 , 1969, pp 23-26

F i g u r e 1

HIERARCHY OF TRADITIONAL NATIONAL GOALS

( a f t e r 0'~iordanf

NATIONAL ECONOIUC + GROWTH

INCOl6E REDISTRIBUTION

ECOLOGICAL

t h e preserva t h e b e a u t i f u l i n , and t h e harmony o f ,

n a t u r e a g a i n s t t h e popularly-perceived need f o r economic

growth and development

The r e c e n t upsurge o f p u b l i c i n t e r e s t i n environmental

q u a l i t y would a p p e a r t o be p a r t l y e x p l a i n e d by a g r e a t e r

p u b l t c concern o v e r t h e s i g n s o f environmental d e t e r i o r a t i o n

P u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l l s conducted by geographers and o t h e r

s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s have recorded views about environmental I/

d s , Resource Paper No 5 , 1969; "Refsgrch Approaches

and Q u e s t i o n a i r e Designn, i n S e w e l l , W.R.D and I Burton

( e d s ) , P e r c e p t i o n s and A t t i t u d e s i n & s o u r c e s Kanaeement

Ottawa, I n f o r m a t i o n Ganada, 1971, pp 13-26

be based upon v e r b a l r e s v o n s e s r a t h e r t h a n upon o v e r t be-

haviour see ~ e u t s c h e r ,* l a , "Words and Ueeds: S o c i a l S c i e n c e and s o c i a l P o l i c y n , i n S o c i a l Problems, Vol 13, No 2 ,

1966, p 236

however, one must be aware o f an o b j e c t l 5 his c o g n i t i v e

p r o c e s s l e a d s t o b e l i e f p a t t e r n s t h a t c o n t a i n w i t h i n them

understanding o f l i n k a g e s t h a t may e x i s t between t h e phenomena

o f which t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s aware For concern t o be t r a n s - formed from a v e r b a l e x p r e s s i o n i n t o a c t i o n , knowledge o f

t h e s e l i n k a g e s i s necessary One i s more l i k e l y t o d e s i s t from u s i n g d e t e r g e n t s c o n t a i n i n g phosphates i f one under-

s t a n d s t h e l i n k a g e s between t h e use o f such d e t e r g e n t s ,

u n t r e a t e d municipal e f f l u e n t , and i n c r e a s e d b i o l o g i c a l pro-

d u c t i v i t y i n w a t e r s r e c e i v i n g t h e e f f l u e n t Heberlein, i n conducting a f i e l d experiment concerning l i t t e r i n g behaviour, discovered t h a t t h o s e who were aware o f t h e consequences o f

-

t h e i r a c t i o n s were l e s s l i k e l y t o l i t t e r , behaving "according

t o moral norms r a t h e r t h a n economic expedienceen l6 It would appear, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t an understanding o f t h e l e v e l o f

-

awareness o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s important when t e s t i n g t h e

degree o f concern o v e r environmental q u a l i t y i s s u e s

l5 nAwarenessw h a s been d e f i n e d a s e s t a t e o f being knowledgeable about n something through a l e r t n e s s i n

observing o r i n t e r p r e t i n g what one s e e s , h e a r s , f e e l s , e t c e n , Websterst New World D i c t i o n a r y , (College E d i t i o n ) , Toronto, Nelson, F o s t e r and S c o t t , 1966

l6 See H e b e r l e i n , T.A., "The Land E t h i c Realized: Some

S o c i a l Psychological Explanations f o r Changing Environmental

A t t i t u d e s v , i n J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l I s s u e s , Vol 28, No 4,

1972, p 82

ATTITUDES RELATING TO ENVIRaNGENTAL QUALITY ISSUES

A s S c h i f f h a s n o t e d , t h e i n c r e a s e d i n t e r e s t i n e n v i r o n - mental q u a l i t y h a s been accompanied by a " f l o o d o f p a p e r s

f o c u s i n g on p e r c e p t i o n o f and a t t i t u d e s toward t h e e n v i r o n - ment The c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f s c h o l a r s working w i t h i n t h e

c o n f i n e s o f a v a r i e t y o f d i s c i p l i n e s , each w i t h i t s own app-

r o a c h e s and i n t e r e s t s , have l e d t o some c o n f u s i o n i n d e f i n i n g

n p e r c e p t i o n n and " a t t i t u d e t t l* I n a d d i t i o n , t h e t e r m

nopinion" i s f r e q u e n t l y used i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y w i t h " a t t i t u d e w when d e s c r i b i n g a n i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r e f e r e n c e towards something 1 9

Although t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between ttopinionn and

n a t t i t u d e n i s i n d e e d a n i n t i m a t e o n e , some d i s t i n c t i o n s

between t h e two terms may be made An o p i n i o n may be d e f i n e d

a s a v e r b a l l y - e x p r e s s e d b e l i e f o r group o f b e l i e f s , n o t

based upon p o s i t i v e knowledge but h e l d t o be t r u e , v a l i d ,

o r probable 20 An a t t i t u d e , on t h e o t h e r hand, i s n o t nec-

a p p e a r t o be much d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two A s S c h i f f

o r h e r , own p e r s p e c t i v e , through a w f i l t e r n provided by

c u l t u r e , s o c i o - p s y c h o l o g i c a l background, t r a i n i n g , and exper-

i e n c e *' An i n d i v i d u a l t s a c t i o n s p r i m a r i l y o c c u r n o t w i t h i n

t h e "real',' o r phenomenal, environment b u t r a t h e r w i t h i n t h e environment a s p e r c e i v e d a n d , t h e r e f o r e , i n t e r p r e t e d by

21 See H o l l a n d e r , E P., P r i n c i p l e s and Methods o f

S o c i a l P s cholo , New York, Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967,

pp 2 - 5 and

22 S c h i f f , M.R., Op.cit., p 8

23 See Lowenthal , D , "Geography, Experience, and

Imagination: Towards a Geographical Epistemology* i n

Annuals o f t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f American Geographers, Vol 51,

961, PP 241 - 60

himO2' One i s n o t d e a l i n g w i t h c o n d i t i o n s and e v e n t s ex-

t e r n a l t o an i n d i v i d u a l , b u t w i t h

n some k i n d o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n b e t -

ween t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s f e l t needs and s t o r e d

knowledge on t h e one hand, and t h e s i g n a l s o r mess-

Such f e e l i n g s ( l i k e s and d i s l i k e s , f o r example) a r e i n f l u e n c e d

24 Sonnenfeld , J , "Geography, P e r c e p t i o n , and t h e

Behavioral Environmentn, a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Dallas '

A.A.A.S., December 1968, i n a symposium o n "The Use o f Space

by Animals and Man."

by p e r c e p t i o n , s o c i a l background and p a s t behaviour p a t t e r n s They a r e a l s o a s s o c i a t e d with t h e c o g n i t i v e component which

c o n s i s t s of t h e b e l i e f s h e l d by an i n d i v i d u a l , t h e s e l a t t e r being p a r t l y dependent upon t h e awareness l e v e l These a f f -

most i n d i s t i n c t O f g r e a t e r importance, perhaps, i s t h e

need t o b e t t e r understand t h e l i n k between t h e v e r b a l ex-

A s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s have attempted t o a n a l y s e a t t i t u d e s

29 See S c h i f f , M.R , "Some c o n s i d e r a t i o n s about a t t i t u d e

s t u d i e s i n r e s o u r c e mangementw, Waterloo, Dept o f Geography, Waterloo-Lutheran U n i v e r s i t y , 1971 (rnimeo); a l s o O'Riordan, T ,

"Some r e f l e c t i o n s on environmental a t t i t u d e s and environmental behaviourw, i n Area, Vol 5, No 1, 1973, pp 17-21

j0 S c h i f f , M.R., 0 c i t p 8 S c h i f f e x p r e s s e s t h e view t h a t , w h i l e t h e t r a d *' t l o n a l " a t t i t u d e s w s t u d y s t i l l - h a s

i t s p l a c e i n s t u d i e s o f environmental q u a l i t y , environmental behaviour should be t h e major o b j e c t o f such s t u d i e s

p o o r , and i l l - e d u c a t e d and who were l i k e l y t o l i v e n e a r e r t o

t h e c i t y c e n t r e , were n o t as concerned a b o u t w a t e r p o l l u t i o n

a s a p u b l i c problem whereas t h e more a f f l u e n t , b e t t e r -

e d u c a t e d , and u s u a l l y w h i t e , s u b u r b a n i t e s f e l t more d i r e c t l y

31 Barker, M.L., "The P e r c e p t i o n o f Water Q u a l i t y as a

F a c t o r i n Consumer A t t i t u d e s and Space P r e f e r e n c e s i n Out- door R e c r e a t i o n n , u n p u b l i s h e d M.A T h e s i s , Dept o f

Geography, U n v i e r s i t y of Toronto, 1968

32 F r e d e r i c k s o n , H.G k H Magnas, nComparing A t t i t u d e s toward Water P o l l u t i o n i n Syracusen i n Water Resources

Research, Vol 4 , 1968, No 5, pp 877-889

I n a d d i t i o n , two more r e c e n t s t u d i e s have a l s o s u g g e s t e d

34 Lycan, D.R., and W,R.D S e w e l l , "Water and a i r p o l l -

u t i o n a s components o f t h e urban environment o f V i c t o r i a , "

i n Geographical P e r s p e c t i v e s , Vancouver, B C T a n t a l u s

P r e s s , 1968, pp 13-18,

35 Tognacci, L.N., R.H Wergel, M.F Wideen, and D.A.T Vernon, nEnvironrnental Q u a l i t y : how u n i v e r s a l i s p u b l i c con- ern?^, i n Environment and Behaviour, Vol 4 , 1 9 7 2 , pp 73-86

C o n s t a n t i n i , E and K Hanf "Environmental concern and Lake Tahoen , i n - ~ n v i r o n m e n t and - ~ e h a v i o u r , Vol 4 , 1972,

p a r t i c u l a r , i n t e r p e r s o n a l i n f l u e n c e i s o f more importance

t h a n mass media i n n o d i f y i n g o p i n i o n s and a t t i t u d e s The

r o l e of o p i n i o n l e a d e r s and t h e 111ost a c t i v e members i n t h e community i s t h u s v i t a l t o o p i n i o n and a t t i t u d e formation 37

L i t t l e h a s been done, however, t o t e s t t h e importance

o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s w i t h r e g a r d t o environmental p o l l u t i o n

With t h i s i n mind, one o f t h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s t u d y was

t o examine t o what e x t e n t socio-economic s t a t u s and o t h e r

i t i c a l forum towards c o n t r o l l i n g such problems

ENVIROIWENTAL QUALITY AS A POLITICAL ISSUE

C a l d w e l l , C.K., "Environment: a new f o c u s f o r pub1

p o l i c y w i n P u b l i c Adr,iin Review, Vol 23, 1963# pp 132-13

D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t tT d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g r e s o u r c e

u t i l i z a t i o n and a l l o c a t i o n have a predominantly economic

impact w 3 9 t h e modern concept o f r e s o u r c e s p e r n i t s a

i n g a p o t e n t i a l h a z a r d a s something t h a t w i l l "never happen

t o themw Only when people a r e a f f e c t e d p e r s o n a l l y w i l l t h e y

39 Wenge* N., N a t u r a l Resources and Lhe F o l i t i c a l

S t r u g g l e , New York, handom House, 1955, p 2

'* See OTRiordan, T., P e r s p e c t i v e s on Resource

Mana ement, London, Pion Ltd., 1971, pp 1 5

a r d s i n o r d e r t h a t t h e r e s t o f s o c i e t y may e n j o y such r e s o u r c e s

i n t h e same c o n d i t i o n A s Hardin h a s s u g g e s t e d , i n o r d e r

t h a t t h e nCommonsw do n o t become p o l l u t e d , o r o t h e r w i s e des-

p o i l e d , t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s o c i e t y h a s a d i s t i n c t l y u t i l i t a r i a n , moral r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o s u b o r d i n a t e h i s p e r s o n a l freedom o f

a l a c k o f knowledge o r e x p e r t i s e ( i n such a r e a s as p l a n n i n g , municipal l a w , e n g i n e e r i n g , e t c , ) o r t o s o c i e t y ' s r e l i a n c e

44 Wengert, N., "Resource development i n t h e p u b l i c

i n t e r e s t n , i n N a t u r a l Resources J o u r n a l , Vol 1, No 2 ,

"The Environmental ~i-tions o f Environmental Decision-

Makersw, i n Annals o f t h e American Academy o f P o l i t i c a l

and S o c i a l S c i e n c e , 1 9 7 0 , pp 876 - 94 , and S e w e l l , W.R.D

a ~ n v i r o n m e n t a l P e r c e p t i o n and A t t i t u d e s o f E n g i n e e r s and

P u b l i c H e a l t h O f f i c i a l s n , i n Environment and Behaviour,

Val 3 , 1971, pp 23-59

environmental mangement-those a t t i t u d e s which t h e y themselves

p r e f e r e n c e s and v a l u e s b e i n g imposed upon t h e p u b l i c by such

e l i t e groups S i n c e t h e environment belongs t o a l l and s i n c e

t h e e l e c t o r a t e i s f r e q u e n t l y c a l l e d upon t o pay f o r environ- mental p r o j e c t s ( t h r o u g h bond i s s u e s , d i r e c t and i n d i r e c t

t a x a t i o n , e t c ) , t h e decision-makers i n a democratic s o c i e t y have a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o be r e s p o n s i v e t o t h e o p i n i o n s o f t h o s e

t h e y r e p r e s e n t

Not a l l i n d i v i d u a l s a r e a p a t h e t i c , however, I n r e c e n t

y e a r s , w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e i n p u b l i c concern f o r environmental problems groups o f a r t i c u l a t e , outspoken c i t i z e n s have become

i s himself n o t u s u a l l y a r t i c u l a t e enough, t h e f o r m a t i o n o f

D

t such i n t e r e s t e d p r e s s u r e groups i s a l o g i c a l development o f

Z

t h i s i n c r e a s e d concern Members o f l o c a l communities o f t e n

form impromptu groups when t h e y p e r c e i v e t h e i r common i n t e r e s t s

t o be t h r e a t e n e d , i n such i n s t a n c e s as t h e f l o o d i n g o f prop-

e r t y a f t e r dam c o n s t r u c t i o n , r i v e r d i v e r s i o n , o r w a t e r p o l l u t i o n The p o l i t i c a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e s e groups l a r g e l y depends

upon t h e i r a b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e and inform p u b l i c o p i n i o n s o

t h a t t h e decision-makers become aware o f t h e e x t e n t o f l o c a l

a t t i t u d e s and p r e f e r e n c e s D e s p i t e t h e e n c o u r a g i n g t r e n d of

such p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s , a n , id e n t -

i f i a b l e consensus o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n r a r e l y e x i s t s

It would seem, t h e n , t h a t t h e decision-making p r o c e s s

i n environmental management must have a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

t h e moods and p r e f e r e n c e s o f t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c i n o r d e r

t h a t communication between e l e c t e d o f f i c i a l s and t h e e l e c t o r -

a t e , concerning t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e environment, become a

r e a l i t y Only by improving t h e c h a n n e l s o f communication

w i l l t h e decision-makers become aware o f t h e s t a n d a r d s o f

LMON A R M

Lake

MAP I LOCATION OF S T U D Y

A R E A

awareness l e v e l s o f t h o s e t h e y r e p r e s e n t r e g a r d i n g w a t e r

q u a l i t y problems

THE STUDY AREA

The a r e a w i t h which t h i s s t u d y i s concerned c e n t r e s around t h e s o u t h e r n arm o f Shuswap Lake i n t h e I n t e r i o r o f

B r i t i s h Columbia ( s e e Nap 1) The l a k e i s l o c a t e d t o t h e

n o r t h of t h e Okanagan V a l l e y and i s d r a i n e d by t h e Thompson

R i v e r which j o i n s t h e F r a s e r R i v e r a t L y t t o n I n c l u d i n g

Xara Lake and L i t t l e Shuswap Lake, Shuswap Lake c o v e r s an

a r e a o f 84,000 a c r e s and t h e w a t e r l e v e l f l u c t u a t e s on ' a v e r - age about 16.8' p e a , t h i s b e i n g due t o a normally heavy

s p r i n g m e l t The watershed c o v e r s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6,060 s q u a r e

m i l e s , c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a n a v e r a g e a n n u a l o u t f l o w a t Chase o f 10,200 c u b i c f e e t p e r second

The v i l l a g e o f Salmon A m ( p o p u l a t i o n 1 , 8 0 0 ) i s sit-

u a t e d on t h e Trans-Canada Highway, a t t h e s o u t h e r n e x t r e m i t y

o f t h e Lake, b e i n g t h e primary n o d a l p o i n t f o r t h e r e g i o n between Kamloops, t o t h e west, and R e v e l s t o k e , ts t h e e a s t Contiguous w i t h t h e V i l l a g e is Salmon A r m D i s t r i c t Municipal-

i t y ( p o p u l a t i o n 4 , 2 0 0 ) , a predominantly r u r a l r e g i o n w i t h a lower p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t y t h a n t h a t o f t h e V i l l a g e A t t h e

t i m e o f t h i s s t u d y d u r i n g t h e summer o f 1969, t h e two munic-

i p a l i t i e s were s e p a r a t e and a d m i n i s t e r e d by two s e p a r a t e

1964 s t u d y 48

The V i l l a g e i t s e l f h a s no major secondary i n d u s t r y

beyond a few lumber m i l l s , i t s p r i n c i p a l economic a c t i v i t i e s

months Shuswap Lake and i t s p l e a s a n t c l i m a t e a t t r a c t a l a r g e

number o f v a c a t i o n e r s , many o f whom come s p e c i f i c a l l y t o e n j o y

t h e f a c i l i t i e s o f c a m p s i t e s and p r i v a t e c a b i n s s i t u a t e d

a l o n g t h e l a k e s h o r e Tourism and r e c r e a t i o n i s e x p e c t e d t o

c o n t r i b u t e h e a v i l y t o t h e economic f u t u r e of t h e Shuswap

Region, b u t t h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n w i l l , t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , depend upon t h e e x t e n t t o which a d e q u a t e s t a n d a r d s o f environ-

48 Rawson and W i l l i a m s , Town P l a n n i n g C o n s u l t a n t s ,

Salmon A r m Amalgamation S t u d y , Vancouver, B.C., 1964,

Amalgamation of t h e two m u n i c i p a l i t i e s d i d , however, t a k e

p l a c e i n J u n e , 1970,

49 R e c r e a t i o n and Tourism i s worth $45 m i l l i o n p e r

y e a r f o r t h e Okanagan-Shuswap Region, o f which $12 m i l l i o n i s

f o r accommodation a l o n e Economics and S t a t i s t i c s Branch,

Regional Economic Study o f t h e Okanamn-Shuswap Region, v i c t o r i a ,

.C Dept o f I n d u s t r y , Trade, and Commerce, 121

k e t e r t i a r y s e c t o r ( i n c l u d i n g t h e t o u r i s t ii:%yP, a c c o u n t s

f o r 62% of employment i n t h e r e g i o n ,

mental q u a l i t y a r e m a i n t a i n e d 50

I n r e c e n t y e a r s , however, t h e r e h a s been some e v i d e n c e

o f a d e c l i n e i n w a t e r q u a l i t y a l o n g t h e s e t t l e d l a k e s h o r e o f Shuswap Lake, p a r t i c u l a r l y around t h e wharf a t Salmon A r m

Algae growth on t h e l a k e s u r f a c e n e a r t h e V i l l a g e had come

t h i s change from n o l i g o t r o p h i c t ~ ( u n p r o d u c t i v e ) s t a t e t o a n

" e u t r o p h i c m ( o v e r - e n r i c h e d ) s t a t e may n o t be a s s t e a d y o r

as i n e x o r a b l e as once was t h o u g h t , 5 2 t h e r e seems l i t t l e doubt

50 Economics and S t a t i s t i c s Branch, I b i d , pp 130-131

51 P e r s o n a l c o m u n i c a t i o n w i t h f i s h e r m e n and motel

owners i n t h e summer o f 1969

'& Wagner, R.H Environment and Man, New York, W.W

Norton, 1971, pp 126

22

t h a t many w a t e r b o d i e s e x p e r i e n c e n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e s i n t h e

q u a n t i t i e s of p l a n t and animal l i f e , a p r o c e s s t h a t slowly

t u r n s a l a k e i n t o a waterlogged marsh o r bog

N u t r i e n t enrichment l e a d s t o i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y o f

a l g a e and o t h e r a q u a t i c weeds d u r i n g t h e growing s e a s o n ,

t h e r e b y e n s u r i n g a n e x t r e m e l y h i g h biochemical o xygen demand (B.O.D ) a t t h e end o f t h i s s e a s o n when t h e many weeds d i e and begin t o decompose The h i g h e r t h e B.O.D., t h e l o w e r

t h e oxygen c o n t e n t , b r i n g i n g about t h e d e a t h o f many s m a l l e r organisms A s t i m e p a s s e s , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e

t h a t w i l l o c c u r i n t h e absence o f man, man's i n t e r v e n t i o n

53 Ednonson, W.T., "Water Q u a l i t y and Lake E u t r o p h i c a t i o n : The Leks Washin t o n Casen, i n Campbell, T.H., and R.O

S y l v e s t e r ( e d s 7 , Water Resource Manapement and P u b l i c

P o l i c S e a t t l e , U n i v e r s i t y o f Washington P r e s s , 1968,

d 4 - 1 7 8

54 Committee on P o l l u t i o n , Waste Management and C o n t r o l , Academy of S c i e n c e s , N a t i o n a l Research C o u n c i l , Washingtdn, D.C., 1966, p 42

i s n o t , however, a r e c e n t one: The problem

e x i s t e d i n Europe and E a s t e r n North America i n t h e Nineteen-

t h Century, b u t s c i e n t i s t s ' warnings l a r g e l y went unheeded

A s e a r l y as the 1890's e v i d e n c e of " c u l t u r a l n ( a c c e l e r a t e d )

e u t r o p h i c a t i o n was n o t e d i n Lake a n e a r l y r e f e r - ence t o t h e impact o f Man's a c t i o n s upon n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s Although t h e c a u s e s of a c c e l e r a t e d e u t o p h i c a t i o n a r e

n o t u n i v e r s a l l y a g r e e d upon, many s o u r c e s o f n u t r i e n t en- richment have been i d e n t i f i e d 56 The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f

phosphorous and n i t r o g e n compounds h a s been c i t e d as pro- moting t h e growth o f a l g a e and o t h e r a q u a t i c weeds, a s

have copper, c a r b o n , boron, molybdenum, and s i l i c a 57

Vollenweider, R.A., S c i e n t i f i c Fundamentals o f t h e

E u t r o p h i c a t i o n of Lakes and Flowing Waters, w i t h p a r t i c u l a r

r e f e r e n c e t o n i t r o g e n and phosphorous a s f a c t o r s Eutrophica-

t i o n , O.E.C.D., T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t , DAS/SCI/ 68

Edmonson, W.T., 0 p c i t

57 H a s l e r , A.D., and W E i n s e l e , " F e r t i l i z a t i o n f o r measuring p r o d u c t i v i t y o f n a t u r a l i n l a n d w a t e r s v t , i n

Trans 1 3 t h North American W i l d l i f e Conference, 1948,

pp 527-554

P i r s o n , A , " F u n c t i o n a l Aspects o f m i n e r a l n u t r i t i o n

o f g r e e n p l a n t s n , i n American Review P l a n t P h y s i o l , Vol 6,

1955, pp* 71-114

t o t a l phosphorous i n p u t i n t o t h e Great Lakes, t h e w a t e r

q u a l i t y o f some o f which h a s d e c l i n e d c r i t i c a l l y 58 I n add-

i t i o n , human w a s t e s c o n t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s o f n i t r o g e n ; when dumped i n t o a w a t e r body, it g r e a t l y c o n t r i b u t e s t o an accumulation o f n u t r i e n t s a s w e l l as c r e a t i n g a s e r i o u s h e a l t h

56 I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o i n t Commission, Canada and t h e

U.S A , P o l l u t i o n o f Lake E r i e , Lake O n t a r i o and t h e

I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e c t i o n o f t h e S t Lawrence R i v e r , Ottawa,

I n f o r m a t i o n Canada, 1970, pp 49 - 5 0

59 According t o Edmonson, W.T., Op.cit., p 143, t h e

" f e r t i l i z i n g e f f e c t o f sewage h a s been known and recognized

f o r some timen He q u o t e s Whipple, G.C., " T e c h n i c a l and

S a n i t a r y Problemsn, i n Ward, H.B and G.C Whipple ( e d s ) ,

j i n t o t h e environment v i a s e p t i c t a n k s , a l t h o u g h i t h a s

been s e e n t h a t much o f t h i s r u r a l e f f l u e n t f i l t e r s i n t o

t h e groundwater, depending upon t h e t y p e , depth and p o r o s i t y

o f t h e s o i l A s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s have become more

s o p h i s t i c a t e d , t h e v a r i e t y and q u a n t i t y o f r u r a l wastes t h a t

r e a c h r i v e r s and l a k e s v i a groundwater have r e a c h e d c r i t i c a l

p r o p o r t i o n s 60

The r a t e o f a c c e l e r a t e d e u t r o p h i c a t i o n i n Lakes E r i e and O n t a r i o h a s been t h e s u b j e c t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s t u d y 61

C l o s e r t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , t h e l a k e s o f t h e Okanagan

V a l l e y , a p o p u l a r t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n , i n B r i t i s h Columbia

( s e e Map l ) , have f o r some time d i s p l a y e d s i g n s o f a c c e l e r -

a t e d e u t r o p h i c a t i o n The e u t r o p h i c a t i o n o f Lakes Skaha and Osoyoos i s viewed as b e i n g c r i t i c a l , 6 2 w h i l e s i g n s o f ad-

vanced l i t t o r a l e u t r o p h i c a t i o n have been d e t e c t e d i n Okanagan Lake Comparisons o f l i m o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t i n

t h e Okanagan Lakes i n 1939 and 1970 emphasize t h e marked

63 Clemens, W A.D.S Rawson, and J.L McHugh, A Biolo

i c a l Survey o f Okanagan Lake B.C., O t t a w a , B u l l e t i n

Okanagan Study Committee, Annual Report o f t h e Study Committee o f Canada- B r i t i s h Columbia Okanagan Basin Agree-

-9

I n t h e o p i n i o n o f l o c a l e x p e r t s , t h i s a c c e l e r a t e d

e u t r o p h i c a t i o n h a s been l a r g e l y brought a b o u t by t h e i n t r o d -

u c t i o n o f human and i n d u s t r i a l w a s t e s , a p r a c t i c e t h a t t h e South Okanagdn H e a l t h Unit recommended by ceased 64 Skaha Lake i n p a r t i c u l a r , had f o r sone time been s u f f e r i n g from

s e v e r e a l g a e blooms, " r e s u l t i n g i n a h i g h i l l n e s s r a t e

i n 1967 among r e s i d e n t s who l i v e d around t h e p e r i p h e r y o f

t h e Lake C l i n i c a l symptoms o f t h e i l l n e s s a t t h a t time i n -

d i c a t e d t o x i c a l g a e a s t h e cause." 6 5 I n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r ,

a T e c h n i c a l Committee o f t h e Okanagan Watershed P o l l u t i o n

C o n t r o l Council had r e p o r t e d upon a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n

b i o t i c p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e Lakes, recommending n o t o n l y t h e improvement o f e f f l u e n t s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e e n t i r e v a l l e y ,

but a l s o t h a t t e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t o f a l l m u n i c i p a l e f f l u e n t

be mandatory 66 S e r i o u s a l g a e blooms on Skaha Lake i n

1967-8 d i d , however, g a l v a n i z e t h e l o c a l c a m i l s i n t o a c t i o n The o v e r l o a d i n g o f t h e P e n t i c t o n sewage t r e a t m e n t p l a n t ,

d u r i n g t h e h e i g h t o f t h e summer t o u r i s t s e a s o n , impressed

t h e l o c a l decision-makers w i t h t h e need t o p r o v i d e f a c i l i t i e s

t h a t would m a i n t a i n p u b l i c h e a l t h a n d , presumably, t h e

64 Alcock, F.R and D.A C l a r k e , Op.cit., p 2

65 Useful i s Alcock, F.R., The T h r e a t o f E u t r o p h i c a t i o n

o f Okanagan Lakes, Kelowna, B.C South Okanagan H e a l t h U n i t ,

968, P* 4

66 T e c h n i c a l Committee, Okanagan Watershed P o l l u t i o n

C o n t r o l C o u n c i l , R e p o r t , Kelowna, B C., S e p t 1966

o t h e r waste m a t e r i a l s o n , i n o r u n d e r any l a n d o r i n t o any

l a n d o r i n t o any w a t e r s w i t h o u t a permit from t h e D i r e c t o r ( o f t h e P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Branch)" 70 The Act a l s o e s t a b l i s h -

67 It was e s t i m a t e d , i n 1969, by t h e Osoyoos Chamber of Commerce t h a t t o u r i s t r e v e n u e s i n t h e Okanagan V a l l e y had

t r o l The f a c i l i t i e s have now been completed

69 See Lucas, A.R., "Water P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Law in*B.C.",

i n U.B.C Law Review, Vol 4, 1969, pp 56-86

70 R.S.B.C., 1967, c 34

e d a P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Board, one of whose r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

i s t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f w a t e r p o l l u t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o i t s own c r i t e r i a , t h e Board t h u s a c t i n g i n a n a d v i s o r y c a p a c i t y

t h e Province 72

71 D i f f e r e n t w a t e r u s e s may be accorded d i f f e r e n t s t a n d -

a r d s : e.g h e a l t h s t a n d a r d s may d i f f e r from t h o s e r e q u i r e d

by t h e R e c r e a t i o n and Conservation Department f o r f i s h and

w i l d l i f e purposes; B.C Water Resources S e r v i c e , P o l l u t i o n

C o n t r o l i n B r i t i s h Columbia, V i c t o r i a Department o f Lands,

F o r e s t s , and Water Resources, 1970, p 10

The c i t y of P r i n c e George (pop 3 2 , 0 0 0 ) , one o f t h e

l a r g e s t i n t e r i o r c i t i e s , d i s c h a r g e s all m u n i c i p a l wastes

d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e F r a s e r River