Crouch Recommended Citation Crouch, Isaac D., "ON THE EFFECT OF VIRTUAL REALITY ON STUDENT UNDERSTANDING OF AND INTEREST IN PHYSICS", Master's report, Michigan Technological Universit
Introduction
Statement of Problem
Amid rapid technological advancement, educators are increasingly examining technology’s potential to transform learning and considering how future technologies can be integrated in the classroom Futurologists like Ray Kurzweil, lead engineer at Google, and Kevin Kelly, a cofounder of Wired, emphasize the need for research in this field, showing that technological growth accelerates exponentially across sectors The advent of the internet and smartphones has reshaped society far more than in previous decades, and if the trend continues, the gap between educators’ digital literacy and students’ expectations could widen further This situation calls for proactive, evidence-based strategies to integrate technology into education and to keep pace with ongoing change in the classroom.
Technological breakthroughs looming on the horizon—full-immersion virtual reality, radical life extension, and artificial general intelligence—could transform nearly every level of society, including education, even as not all effects can be predicted While history shows the downside risks of rapid tech growth, that reality does not preclude pursuing technology or its benefits A proactive approach is needed when evaluating new technologies, and Kelly (2010) offers five guiding principles: extensive anticipation, continual assessment, prioritizing risks, rapid correction of harm, and redirecting harmful technology to other areas of society instead of prohibition The current trajectory of video game technology anticipates full-immersion virtual reality, and this study centers on exploring its potential in educational contexts.
To keep pace with the rapid growth of educational technology, researchers must proactively explore the impact of these tools on classrooms and learning more broadly Too often, instructional designers adopt new technologies without substantial evidence to justify their use This study adds to the body of research on using virtual reality in educational settings by applying Kelly’s principles—anticipating how technologies will support learning, designing programs around that anticipation, and rigorously assessing both benefits and pitfalls so findings can guide future research and classroom applications.
Research Questions
The specific research questions addressed in this study are:
1 Can commercial video games applied in an educational setting increase student understanding of Newton’s Laws?
2 Can commercial video games applied in an educational setting increase student interest towards learning science?
Science Content Addressed
The content of the program designed by this study covers a basic understanding of Newton’s Laws, which are listed here
1 An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an external force
An object in motion will remain in motion (same speed and direction) unless acted upon by an external force
2 The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object
3 For every action (a force applied by one object on another) there is an equal and opposite reaction (the second object applies a force on the first that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction)
The program assumes minimal to no prior knowledge with Newton’s Laws
Through lectures and demonstrations, this program provides a basic understanding of Newton's laws of motion and helps learners correct common misconceptions It explains why, on Earth, objects tend to come to rest, but Newton's First Law—the law of inertia—describes how gravity and friction alter motion, and how, in deep space, an object would continue moving in a straight line unless acted upon by a force Exploring the First and Second Laws clarifies how velocity, acceleration, and mass relate to forces and how these quantities change when forces are applied The discussion culminates in the Third Law, underscoring that forces act in equal and opposite pairs, producing action–reaction effects during object interactions.
Literature Review
The Exponential Growth of Technological Progress
Before computers, technological progress appeared linear, advancing at a steady pace until the knee of the exponential curve where the rate of change begins to accelerate rapidly Throughout history, many revolutionary technologies—language, writing, mathematical notation, the printing press, the scientific method, and mass production—emerged, yet their appearances were typically spread over long periods According to Kevin Kelly (2010) and Ray Kurzweil (2006), the rate of technological growth is now increasing exponentially, placing us at the knee of the curve and suggesting that rapid progress will continue in the years ahead.
Kurzweil is a distinguished inventor whose breakthroughs underpin today’s tech landscape, from flatbed scanners and speech-to-text software to the first synthesizer that could fool musicians into thinking it was a real instrument He has lived through one of the most explosive growth periods in technological progress, a surge that began with the invention of the computer Throughout this era, he has gathered data across many areas of technology to document the rate at which this growth is occurring His work helps illuminate how rapid innovation unfolds across diverse domains, shaping both industries and everyday life.
While growth rates differ across devices, all major components of modern computing—DRAM, transistors, microprocessors, hard drive storage, and the internet—show exponential gains in performance and speed, even as their size and cost decline exponentially This pattern extends beyond hardware, with broader societal indicators such as rising scientific research in genetics and nanotechnology, a growing number of US patents, and information technology's expanding share of the economy pointing to a sustained exponential trajectory that is unlikely to end soon.
Absent a global economic collapse, worldwide nuclear war, or an asteroid impact, current technological trends are likely to continue By analyzing these dynamics, thinkers like Kurzweil and Kelly predict how artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and other technologies will evolve in the near future They foresee AI reaching—and potentially surpassing—human intelligence, driving its own evolution Virtual reality is expected to become increasingly realistic and immersive, potentially replacing many sensory experiences and blurring the line between real and programmed reality Tools we already see today, such as IBM’s Watson, Google Glass, and the Oculus Rift, offer a glimpse of what lies ahead At the same time, advances in medicine and biotechnology are poised to improve health and extend human lifespan.
Views of the future split between a utopian promise and a dystopian risk, depending on one’s perspective on AI and technology All these forecasts hinge on the assumption that exponential growth in computing and intelligence will continue practically without a leveling-off for the foreseeable future Yet the future remains uncertain, and that certainty is far from guaranteed If artificial intelligence eventually surpasses human intelligence, could we prevent it from subjugating us the way we subjugate other forms of intelligence? In the real world, governments are already using new technologies to enforce draconian surveillance policies, a concern highlighted by Edward Snowden.
(Appelbaum and Poitras 2013) It is not very reasonable or wise to think that governments will not continue to use evolving technologies for purposes that counteract democratic values
Predicting the future remains an informed guess with inherent uncertainty, but the impact of emerging technologies on everyday life is unmistakable Recent advances in digital components have fueled the widespread rise of cell phone use and utility over the past decade Children born today will mature in a technological landscape that is vastly different from the past few decades—and even more so after the Internet era Many active teachers began their careers in the pre-Internet era If educators do not stay ahead by developing the skills and knowledge to navigate these technoscapes, guiding student learning will become increasingly difficult.
Definition of Virtual Reality
Cyberspace is a consensual hallucination experienced daily by millions of legitimate operators across nations, from professionals to children learning mathematical concepts It is a graphic representation of data abstracted from the banks of every computer in the human network, exposing unthinkable complexity Lines of light stretch through the nonspace of the mind, forming clusters and constellations of information, like city lights fading into the distance.
-From the book “Neuromancer” by William Gibson
Science fiction has long served not only to foretell but also to drive scientific and technological progress Gibson’s vision envisions a fully immersive virtual world in which users can plug in and be transported to environments where the normal limits of physical reality are nullified and almost anything becomes possible, with boundaries defined only by imagination This perspective highlights how speculative fiction can inspire real-world innovation and reshape our sense of possible futures.
Rheingold (1991) describes virtual reality as a magical window into other worlds—from molecules to minds—where users can plug in and explore phenomena at multiple scales In this immersive environment, you can grab atoms, bond them, twist them in three dimensions, and watch chemical reactions unfold over time from every angle You could also witness cosmic events—seeing a star explode from the inside, watching galaxies collide, and observing the birth of the universe—through interactive visualization that makes abstract concepts feel tangible Because VR renders these ideas with lifelike depth, it turns descriptions that were once expressed in words or crude diagrams into experiences as vivid as life itself This level of immersion holds remarkable potential for education, enabling immersive learning, 3D visualization of molecules and space, and inquiry-driven exploration that can transform science instruction.
Today’s virtual reality applications have not yet achieved full sensory immersion that makes users feel they are inside a program, yet video games—the most pervasive form of VR—have become deeply embedded in our daily lives and culture This illustrates how immersive digital experiences, especially gaming, shape entertainment, social interaction, and media consumption By 2011, the entertainment software sector was rapidly expanding, underscoring the growing cultural prominence of gaming in the modern digital landscape.
Association reported that 58% of Americans play video games (Association 2013)
Video games captivate players with high engagement, and when that engagement is channeled into education, the potential for learning becomes enormous This study examines how game-based engagement can be harnessed for educational purposes, exploring methods to convert immersive gameplay into measurable learning outcomes.
Before exploring virtual reality and video games further, it helps to clarify two core terms: immersion and navigation Immersion is the technology’s ability to create the illusion of being inside a simulated environment distinct from waking life, and the more immersive the experience, the harder it is to distinguish it from normal sensory input Navigation refers to the user’s capacity to move within that environment and to manipulate objects Commercial video games exhibit these qualities to varying degrees, with the latest titles typically delivering higher levels of immersion, more sophisticated navigation, or both.
It has been suggested that a distinction is made between simulations and games used in educational settings (Young et al 2012; Zahira Merchant et al 2014) Both are designed to imitate some actual process or environment, and must allow opportunities for the player/student to test hypotheses and solve problems However games differ from simulations in that they can impart the player with a sense of self-identity, and include goals, levels of achievement, and rewards as integral characteristics Games can also progress through a narrative, but in order to be effective instructional tools these narratives must follow the contour of the learning context In addition, Hew and Cheung
(2013) have defined virtual worlds as three-dimensional immersive environments that have the illusion of 3D space, a visual representation of the user in the form of an avatar, and interactive tools for users to communicate with each other To different extents these three somewhat overlapping distinctions have the qualities of immersion and navigation discussed above and thus can be categorized underneath the term virtual reality.
Previous Applications of VR in Educational Settings
Medical simulations have become central in training healthcare professionals, reducing risk by teaching skills before patient contact Historically, many simulations used physical models of real anatomy, but virtual simulations are being adopted more widely (Scalese et al., 2008) These tools span immersion levels from game-like virtual worlds to highly realistic surgical simulators that engage vision, hearing, and touch They enable medical education to train and assess knowledge and competence without live patients, cutting costs and overcoming ethical and logistical barriers They also support outreach initiatives to recruit interested secondary school students into the medical profession, with participants reporting strong engagement, enjoyment, and confidence about pursuing a medical career (Tang et al., 2013) Other high-risk industries—such as aviation, the military, and nuclear power—have also benefited from virtual simulation.
Research shows that the two-dimensional physics simulation program Interactive Physics, used in K-12 teacher professional development, enhances teachers' content knowledge and their ability to integrate technology into actual lesson plans (Irwin, 2012) Another simulator, Real Time Relativity, positively affects student exam performance, boosts students' confidence in understanding physics concepts, and increases enjoyment of the subject (McGrath et al., 2010) Given that many modern physics ideas require a reconceptualization of everyday notions of reality, virtual reality tools hold strong potential to improve teaching and learning in modern physics by supporting this shift in understanding.
In a study by Hwang and Hu (2011), the Interactive Future Mathematics Classroom (IFMC) VR program was examined for its ability to promote fifth-grade students' understanding of geometry, proficiency in geometric problem solving, and familiarity with multiple representations of geometric concepts The system used interactive geometric manipulatives within a virtual environment that included a table for adding, stacking, removing, and moving shapes; whiteboards for writing equations and notes; and a peer-chat tool to communicate with classmates Two classes were involved—one as a control group and one using the IFMC program—and pre- and post-tests assessed prior knowledge and learning gains Results indicated that students who received the intervention learned more about geometric concepts and achieved higher problem-solving scores than those in the control group.
CyberMath is a virtual environment designed for mathematics education to explore key issues in virtual reality–based learning (Taxen and Naeve 2002) The platform investigates the effectiveness of free-choice learning typical of VR programs—similar to museum experiences—versus formal, directed instruction It also examines how different immersion levels affect learning, weighing the high engagement of full-immersion environments against the lower cost and greater accessibility of desktop, low-immersion setups The program seeks to understand how high visual realism can either hinder or enhance learning and how to manage collaboration among large numbers of users At present, the designers have not reported any study outcomes.
Chemistry often demands strong spatial visualization skills to interpret how atoms arrange to form molecules A 2013 study by Z Merchant and colleagues explored whether the online virtual world Second Life could enhance spatial abilities and chemistry achievement among undergraduate students in an introductory chemistry course The findings showed that the program did not significantly improve overall spatial skills or course performance Yet, students who struggled with manipulating two-dimensional representations showed markedly better performance in the three-dimensional environment, suggesting 3D visualization benefits for those learners The study also found no significant gender differences in spatial ability, challenging the notion that males outperform females in this area.
Second Life has been studied as a learning tool within a graduate interdisciplinary communication course, using student journals, surveys, focus groups, and video-recorded analyses to examine how learning occurs in the virtual environment, the types of learning that emerge, and the transfer of these insights to real-world contexts, along with student perceptions of the platform’s educational value The findings show positive effects across these dimensions, with students reporting that the virtual world offers a risk-free, playful space to test ideas and hypotheses without the cost and time required by real-world experimentation While communication skills are not a traditional science subject, they are a crucial practice for scientists and for students learning to think like scientists, making these results relevant to current studies on scientific thinking and learning in virtual settings.
Another study by Lester and King (2009) compared an undergraduate mass communications course taught in person to an online version led by the same instructor in the Second Life environment The traditional in-person class relied on lectures, while the Second Life course used a virtual setting to deliver content and facilitate interaction The study aimed to examine how instructional format and delivery platform influence student engagement and learning experiences in a single course taught by the same faculty member.
Online courses combined PowerPoints, video clips, and online assignment submissions with in-person submission options The class also offered typed lecture notes, personalized avatars, digital whiteboards, and additional video clips to facilitate learning Pre- and post-tests were administered to gather data on student demographics, confidence in computer literacy, attitudes toward the course, and perceived knowledge of the course content.
Measures included submitted assignments, discussion board responses, and exams Overall, the study found no significant differences between the two courses While the virtual world intervention did not enhance learning for these students, it did not detract from it either.
The virtual world E-Junior recreates an underwater Mediterranean Sea environment to teach basic natural science and ecology concepts In a comparative study, two classes received the same content and objectives, with one group using the virtual world and the other traditional teaching methods, and both qualitative and quantitative data were collected Pre- and post-tests assessed baseline knowledge and gains in natural science and ecology, while a post-test questionnaire evaluated students’ attitudes toward the virtual world with open and closed items Results showed that the two groups started with similar background knowledge (pretest) and both gained knowledge from their respective instruction, but there was no significant difference between the control and intervention on the posttest The study’s conclusions are tempered by limitations, including the tutor effect—where the intervention class used a virtual tutor—and the E-Junior program’s four-student group design, both confounding the data Additionally, students in the intervention reported higher enjoyment, engagement, and willingness to participate in similar activities in the future.
Frameworks for Conceptualizing and Measuring Technology in Education
To address the study’s research questions, we must establish a reliable measurement method that determines whether the technology integrated into the program positively affects the key dependent variables What follows is a review of several evaluation frameworks designed to achieve this aim, outlining how each framework supports rigorous assessment, comparison across contexts, and meaningful interpretation of outcomes.
The RAT Framework was developed to help educators assess how technology can be used in the classroom (Hughes et al., 2006) Grounded in research that highlights the challenges both preservice and inservice teachers face when integrating technology into instruction, this framework offers a decision-making tool for selecting among technological options Its approach analyzes technology’s effects on teaching practices, student learning outcomes, and curriculum goals After evaluating these aspects, technology uses are categorized as replacement (R), amplification (A), or transformation (T).
Technology in education can be grouped into three roles: substitution, augmentation, and transformation Substitution occurs when technology simply replaces non-technological instruction without changing the core process—for example, a word processor used for underlining and highlighting key words instead of a traditional worksheet Augmentation refers to technology increasing instructional efficiency and student learning, such as using a word processor to store, organize, and easily modify instructional materials for future use Transformation goes further, fundamentally changing what students learn, the materials teachers use, or even adding new curriculum goals that weren’t possible before This view treats computers and the internet as powerful learning partners rather than just “cold machines,” a shift that has gained momentum since 1997 as everyday life increasingly revolves around digital tools and classrooms begin to anticipate a transformed educational experience.
Technology often serves multiple roles that fit into different categories of the RAT framework As with the word-processing example above, Google Docs’ online tools handle administrative tasks such as collecting and organizing assignments They also boost efficiency by eliminating paper copies, since document files update automatically and revisions become visible to the instructor in real time.
The RAT framework offers a structured approach for educators to evaluate how technology is integrated into instruction, presenting three distinct categories that describe how technology affects teaching and learning and enabling informed decisions about when and how to use it in the classroom.
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK)
Within the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge form a complex, interwoven matrix that teachers must navigate to design effective instruction Koehler and Mishra (2009) acknowledge the challenges of teaching with technology—between analog and digital tools, limited institutional support, and rapid tech growth that outpaces preparation—stressing that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to instruction Instead, effective teaching occurs when educators fluidly traverse the three domains as needed, building knowledge in each area and in their interactions As an evolution of Shulman’s Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), TPACK positions technology alongside content and pedagogy, with Content Knowledge representing mastery of the subject matter being taught.
Pedagogical knowledge encompasses the methods and practices used to teach any subject Shulman’s Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) framework links instructional strategies to specific disciplines, ensuring pedagogy is tailored to the content The idea that content and pedagogy can be treated separately is insufficient to teach diverse learners, so effective instruction requires an integrated approach that blends subject matter with appropriate teaching practices.
Integrating technology into this framework adds an additional layer of complexity, demanding a clear understanding of how digital tools enable information processing, enhance communication, and support problem solving Technology knowledge encompasses not only how to use these tools effectively, but also when a particular technology is appropriate and when it is better to refrain, ensuring that choices align with goals, context, and constraints.
Technological Content Knowledge (TCK) is about understanding how technology affects a specific content area or discipline and how that discipline uses technology to advance its own knowledge base Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK) concerns how technology influences teaching and learning, including how tools originally designed for business or entertainment can be repurposed to enhance education.
Viewed as an all-encompassing idea, TPACK—technological pedagogical content knowledge—captures what teachers need to blend technology, pedagogy, and subject matter in education To effectively integrate technology into learning environments, educators must master each domain—technology, pedagogy, and content—and understand how they interact, since changes in one area often demand rethinking the others For example, the rise of the Internet has pushed teachers to reconsider how to present and transmit content through impersonal online platforms Looking ahead, teachers who want to successfully incorporate new technologies into instruction can rely on the TPACK framework to guide their planning and practice.
Technology Use In Science Instruction (TUSI)
This framework is designed to quantify how technology enhances instructional effectiveness and aligns with science reform efforts (Campbell & Abd-Hamid, 2012) A central motivation is to measure technological knowledge in relation to TPACK, giving educators a lens to conceptualize how they adopt and integrate technology into their lessons It also provides a way to assess how technology-infused instruction matches recent reform benchmarks The framework anchors its guidance in two foundational documents—Science for All Americans and the National Science Education Standards—linking tech-enabled teaching to established standards in science education.
Standards To do this they relied on the five guidelines for ensuring that instruction, as altered by technology, aligns with these documents offered by Flick and Bell (2000):
1 Technology should be introduced in the context of science content
2 Technology should address worthwhile science with appropriate pedagogy
3 Technology instruction in science should take advantage of the unique features of technology
4 Technology should make scientific views more accessible
5 Technology instruction should develop students' understanding of the relationship between technology and science
Researchers employed a multistage approach to develop assessment items that measure any use of technology in instruction They started with an initial draft informed by the referenced guidelines and standards, then revised it based on feedback from four national and international content experts, each holding a PhD in science education.
After the revisions, the researchers trained the system with six educators and applied the instrument to 25 videos of technologically-enhanced instruction They then compared each educator’s ratings to establish the instrument’s reliability and used statistical analysis to condense related items, thereby increasing the system’s efficiency.
The appendix to the study presents the completed TUSI instrument along with an accompanying observation guide The instrument comprises five main categories, each containing five or six items that an observer rates on a scale from zero to five within the respective categories The observation guide offers detailed explanations of each item and provides examples of potential classroom implementations.
The State and Needs of Technology Education Research
Research on virtual reality in education reports promising results in student motivation and in understanding when VR is used in the classroom There are concerns about the assumptions researchers bring to these studies and about the methodological designs themselves Moreover, several researchers have conducted meta-analyses of related work, identifying what has been achieved so far and outlining the current needs of the field This discussion examines both topics.
The effectiveness of the comparative research design, in which one class receives a technological intervention while another learns the same content through traditional instruction, has been questioned Most studies using this format report no significant differences between intervention and control groups Even when differences are found, establishing a causal link between the intervention and outcomes is difficult due to the complex classroom environment and the multitude of confounding variables Because researchers must keep pedagogical components constant for valid comparisons, the technology used in the intervention cannot be fully explored Moreover, it is unrealistic to expect instructional methods to remain constant across groups, since teachers naturally modify their approaches when new technological tools are introduced.
Kirkwood and Price (2013) contend that evidence linking student performance to technological interventions in education is difficult to substantiate They note that intervention choices and assessment formats are often driven by student and resource availability rather than research aims, and that the format of assessments itself can shape learning outcomes, calling into question the validity of performance measures as research tools They also highlight a tendency among educational researchers to equate positive scores on self-questionnaires and attitude scales with learning gains, a problematic assumption since learning gains and positive attitudes are not necessarily causally linked Consequently, positive attitudes or higher assessment scores in a technology-enabled lesson do not by themselves establish a causal effect of the technology.
Williams (2011) analyzed research published in three major technology education journals over a five-year period (2006–2011) and found that the field spans a broad range of topics, with technology design, curriculum, literacy, and student thinking identified as the four most studied areas Although many topics appear, several are infrequently addressed—notably information technology, mobile/online delivery of content, and learning styles—highlighting clear directions for future technology education research.
From an international perspective, Ritz and Martin (2012) assembled a panel of experts from outside the United States to identify the most pressing needs in technology education The researchers collected opinions systematically and subjected them to a four-step synthesis to build consensus among diverse panel members, ultimately identifying 17 major issues for educational research The current study seeks to address these issues, at least in part, including understanding the nature of design in technology education, clarifying how learning occurs within the technology curriculum, identifying the abilities students develop through technology studies, delineating the essential knowledge and skills that technology programs aim to teach, and examining students' motivation toward technology.
Hew and Cheung (2013) conducted a literature review of articles on virtual worlds in education and found that no research addressed commercial virtual worlds, such as World of Warcraft or Portal 2, the games that are the focus of this study.
Description of the Virtual World Portal 2
The popular video game "Portal" and its sequel "Portal 2", developed by the
Portal, a defining puzzle-platformer from Valve Corporation, drops players into a sprawling network of interconnected rooms where each chamber presents a solvable puzzle that unlocks the way forward The central tool is the Portal Gun, which fires linked portals that let the player—and movable objects—travel through space to reach new areas To solve the tests, players must cleverly manipulate portals while navigating hazards such as turret fire and interacting with blocks and other interactive elements scattered throughout the puzzles.
Featuring companion cubes, buttons and switches, tractor beams, liquids that spread across surfaces to make the player move faster or jump higher, laser beams and cubes that redirect those beams, and faith plates that launch the player through the air, this physics-based puzzle game demonstrates Newton’s Laws in action The game engine follows the resulting kinematics, revealing how forces shape motion and creating practical opportunities to teach basic physics concepts through interactive learning.
Portal 2 is available on all major consoles and PC, and the PC version includes the Portal 2 Puzzle Maker, a tool that lets players design their own maps and puzzles The Puzzle Maker contains all of the elements from the base game and offers a straightforward graphical user interface for creating puzzles, while a more advanced editor provides greater control at the cost of a steeper learning curve.
Steam for Schools was an educator-focused initiative that provided lesson plans, free copies of the game, and other resources for teachers, and this program served as the initial inspiration for the current study An educational version of the Puzzle Maker existed, allowing users to precisely control various physical quantities within the game and greatly expanding its potential as a tool for teaching science The author of this study contacted Valve and learned that Steam for Schools had been cancelled.
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This article reviews technology education in the 11th grade, focusing on teaching methods that foster student interest and support inquiry into core concepts It notes how different instructional approaches impact students’ motivation, their use of learning materials, and their verbal and written problem-solving skills through activities such as puzzle-based tasks Drawing on techniques studied by Park and Mualem, the piece discusses how multiple factors influence students’ grasp of physics ideas, including the net force in systems with several objects, and it highlights the value of hands-on, collaborative learning for building deep understanding.
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Studies on university students’ understanding of Newton’s Third Law show that conventional teaching often leaves gaps in students’ conceptual models of action–reaction forces In 2010 Formica and colleagues explored Just-In-Time Teaching (JiTT), an Internet-based three-step method in which students first complete a reading plus online conceptual questions, the instructor uses those responses to guide a targeted discussion, and the class finishes with a collaborative activity The researchers found that this JiTT sequence produced greater gains in conceptual understanding than a control group, indicating that timely, feedback-informed discussions linked to students’ ideas can strengthen students’ grasp of Newton’s Third Law.
Researchers have developed and used the Force Concept Inventory (FCI) to measure students’ content knowledge of forces and identify common misconceptions, providing a tool to evaluate instructional effectiveness (Hestenes et al., 1992) Mualem and Eylon (2010) applied the FCI to assess the impact of instructional techniques that emphasize visual representations in teaching forces, reporting an overall increase in ninth-grade FCI scores that supports the effectiveness of these methods At the university level, the FCI has been used to compare traditional mechanical curricula with experimental approaches, though researchers note limitations of the instrument when used to justify curriculum reform (Caballero et al., 2012) Although primarily used in high school and university settings, educators have called for simplifying the language of FCI items to make the assessment accessible to younger students.
Preliminary investigation suggests that a simplified version of the FCI can produce similar results when given to eleventh and twelfth grade students, however more research
Instructional Techniques for Teaching Newton’s Laws
In a study of 100 college students enrolled in an electricity and magnetism course, Lasry et al (2011) evaluated the reliability of the Force Concept Inventory (FCI) The participants completed the FCI twice without receiving any instruction on forces, with the second administration one week after the first The results showed that the overall FCI score is a reliable measure of content knowledge, but item-level responses fluctuated significantly across questions, suggesting that the FCI is most useful when interpreted as a coherent whole rather than by evaluating individual items.
Methods
Students and Facilities
The intervention program in this study is administered to eight students who are all members of the partnering institution – The Greensboro Science Center The researcher in this study gained part-time employment with the science center in the fall of
2013, at which time they agreed to provide the facilities for the program and offer it to members of the organization Since members receive free admission to the facility, the program was restricted to members-only in order to avoid complications with payment or additional paperwork and supervision that would arise through offering a limited admission to non-members Additionally, since the students’ parents would be members as well, they would be free to enter and exit as they please
An online registration form was used to recruit a pool of potential participants The form gathered information on prior computer and video game experience, familiarity with the specific game used in the program (Portal 2), and participants’ mathematics background From this pool, eight participants were selected who exhibited a range of video game and Portal 2 experience while also possessing basic algebra skills, ensuring they were prepared to understand the mathematical manipulations of Newton’s Laws.
The facility offers several computer labs for student use Two of these labs also host LEGO robotics classes, but they were not chosen for this purpose due to the potential distractions from the LEGO bricks in the room The third room was selected because it has few distractions It already contains five desktop computers, and three additional laptops were brought in to achieve a one-to-one student-to-device ratio Each laptop is equipped with an external mouse, and all computers come with headphones.
Over a two-week period, the program comprised six after-school sessions: two Thursday sessions of 1.5 hours and two Saturday sessions of four hours, totaling 14 hours of contact time, with the sessions spaced to maximize attendance since daily sessions were unlikely to sustain participation Participants were informed via the program flyer and registration form that the intervention was part of a graduate research study, a disclosure intended to support high attendance rates Consent forms, completed and signed by both parents and students before the start, ensured that names would not be used in the final report, and these forms, along with the program flyer, are provided in Appendix D The intervention was delivered between May 6 and May 17, 2014, and was taught by the author.
Goals and Objectives
The intervention program aims to give students a solid understanding of how objects move in response to forces by exploring Newton’s Laws through Portal 2, while also strengthening their attitudes toward science and interest in scientific careers Designed to align with the North Carolina Essential Standards, the program combines inquiry-based activities with practical applications to help students master core physics concepts such as inertia, action–reaction, and acceleration By connecting gameplay experiences with real-world contexts, it promotes deep learning of motion and forces and fosters a positive, sustained engagement with STEM subjects.
Phys 1.2.3 - Explain forces using Newton’s laws of motion as well as the universal law of gravitation
Phys 1.2.4 - Explain the effects of forces (including weight, normal, tension and friction) on objects
During the course, students learn to play the video game and build their own puzzles using the Puzzle Maker, while lectures and in-class demonstrations introduce the basic concepts of Newton’s Laws The program revolves around three main activities designed to achieve these goals: for each of Newton’s Laws, students design a custom puzzle that not only follows the game’s rules but also includes a moment where the law is demonstrated in action After crafting their puzzles, students present them to classmates, explaining how each design illustrates the corresponding law, and then have the opportunity to try each other’s puzzles.
Program Overview
On the program’s first day, students are welcomed and introduced to the instructor and their peers through a team-building activity, after which they complete an attitude survey and a pre-test on Newton’s Laws before any instruction begins The rest of the period introduces Portal 2 game mechanics and the Puzzle Maker, followed by a free-play session in which students start the game’s storyline As they progress, a built-in tutorial teaches the basic game controls and nuances, supporting hands-on learning and steady skill development.
On day two, students continue the storyline-driven learning to master the game controls and refine their strategies for solving puzzles, while also exploring the puzzle maker to gain hands-on experience with the software They experiment freely in the puzzle maker, building comfort with design tools and encouraging open-ended problem solving The session culminates in an attention-grabbing lecture on Newton’s First Law, delivered by the teacher and anchored by an egg-drop demo: an egg perched on a cardboard tube atop a pie tin, which rests on a glass of water, as students try to knock out the tin so the egg falls directly into the water without shattering.
After discussing the forces at play, the instructor introduces Newton's First Law as a framework for understanding the demonstration Students are invited to identify everyday examples of the law, such as being thrown off a skateboard or bicycle when hitting an obstacle, and pushing a bottle of ketchup to get the last drops out, illustrating inertia in action.
On Saturday, during the program’s first long session—a four-hour block—the students continue solving in-game puzzles and learn how to design their own challenges The instructor delivers a lecture clarifying what a “change in motion” means under Newton’s First Law, using the egg-drop demonstration and orbiting satellites to introduce velocity and acceleration and to distinguish between force and net force The day’s puzzle challenge is to design a puzzle that demonstrates Newton’s First Law After completing their designs, students test and review each other’s puzzles, trying to pinpoint where the law is demonstrated The session ends with the class and the instructor sharing the puzzles and discussing the successful and unsuccessful applications of the law.
On day four of the program, students begin with a period of free play before gathering for a lecture on Newton’s Second Law The material from Newton’s First Law is used as a bridge to the Second, grounding the discussion in the idea that objects resist changes in motion Building on that foundation, the lesson explains that a net force causes acceleration, and that acceleration is proportional to the net force and inversely proportional to the object's mass, as expressed by F = ma Through demonstrations and practical examples, students see how different forces produce different accelerations and how mass moderates that effect, reinforcing the connection between force, mass, and motion The day’s activities help translate the theory of Newton’s Second Law into real‑world predictions, enhancing the ability to analyze and explain how objects move when forces act on them.
Newton's second law explains exactly how an object's acceleration depends on the net force acting on it and how mass shapes its motion In practical terms, acceleration rises with greater net force and falls as mass increases, with common forces such as applied forces, gravity, air resistance, and friction acting as the usual culprits for changes in motion The activity challenges students to design a puzzle that demonstrates the Second Law, turning theory into a hands-on demonstration After completing their puzzles, students swap and solve each other’s designs and discuss the results with the instructor, reinforcing a solid understanding of how force, mass, and motion interact.
On the program’s fifth day, after a period of free play, students attend a lecture on Newton’s Third Law demonstrated with a rolling cart carrying both a fan and a metal plate acting as a sail; the classic fan-cart demo asks whether a sailboat with no wind can be propelled forward by attaching a fan, and with the plate attached the cart remains stationary while motion only appears when the plate is removed To aid understanding, the instructor links the demo to rockets, explaining the action–reaction pair in flight—the force of the rocket on the air and the equal and opposite force of the air on the rocket—and then shows that the sail likewise pushes against the air as the cart tries to move, with the air pushing back on the sail, balancing the fan’s force and halting motion The lecture ends by soliciting student examples of Newton’s Third Law, and the class moves on to a third puzzle challenge similar to the first two.
On the final day, students participate in a four-hour session, with an hour and a half allocated to solving a puzzle designed by the instructor that showcases Newton's Laws in multiple scenarios In the Final Puzzle Challenge, they must identify at least two instances of each of Newton's Laws After solving the puzzle, they are allowed to challenge each other to tackle the puzzles they created, fostering peer collaboration The day concludes with completing an attitude post-survey and retaking the exact same Newton's Laws assessment that they took on the first day.
Data Collection
This study uses a mixed-method concurrent convergent design, collecting quantitative and qualitative data simultaneously as appropriate (McMillan 2004) Following prior educational technology research, surveys with Likert-type scales measure student attitudes toward learning science (Wrzesien and Alcaniz Raya 2010; Hwang and Hu 2013; Jarmon et al 2009) The surveys are administered at the very beginning of the first program session and at the very end of the final session, and are available in Appendix C Most survey items are identical across both administrations, asking students to rate their agreement with standard attitude statements such as “I like learning about science.” The items that differ between surveys include pre-survey questions that gather information on prior frequency of video game and computer use, and two items asking whether students believe the program impacted their desire to learn physics and whether they would take another course like it Two open-ended items on the post-survey ask students what their favorite part of the program was and invite additional comments; these are not included on the first survey.
To assess middle school students' understanding of motion, forces, and Newton's Laws and to determine whether the Portal 2 program influenced that understanding, criterion-referenced tests were administered at the start and end of the program The tests, which include true/false and open-ended items, are available in Appendix A and map to the program content Although standardized measures like the Force Concept Inventory (FCI) are preferable for research, the study's conceptual items were not adapted from the FCI for two reasons: Osborn Popp and Jackson (2009) note that the FCI's language is not suitable for this age group, and Lasry et al (2011) show that while the FCI is reliable overall, some individual questions—particularly those on Newton’s Laws—are not Consequently, the test items were either created by the instructor or adapted from Hewitt (2002) Specifically, items 1, 2, and 7 address Newton's First Law; items 3, 4, and 8 address Newton's Second Law; and items 5, 6, and 9 address Newton's Third Law.
Evidence of a positive program effect on student understanding is demonstrated when post-test scores exceed pre-test scores, indicating improved learning The instructor grades each student by how closely their answers align with a point-based answer key, ensuring a clear and objective assessment of performance The pre-test also serves to measure students’ prior knowledge of the subject, which is particularly important because the researcher has no prior experience with this class.
Self-report bias is a known limitation of questionnaires and tests, as subjects often answer similarly across items or even misrepresent their responses (McMillan, 2004) To mitigate this, the study employs observational methods alongside surveys The program instructor records real-time observations of student engagement and learning as the program unfolds to assess whether interest is aroused and material is being learned These observations are logged daily in a set of journals for the program After each session, the instructor reviews the entries and writes an overall reflection in the same journal, summarizing daily events, integrating observations, and analyzing his own interpretations to contextualize any inferences This approach is used because an unbiased, third-party observer cannot accompany the researcher in the program.
Results
Pre/Post Test Scores
A conceptual test administered at the start and end of the program showed an average score increase The test included six true/false questions worth one point each and three open-ended questions worth two points each (one point for a correct explanation and one for naming the correct law), totaling twelve points, with scores converted to a percentage Post-test results revealed that none of the post-test scores decreased; three students did not show any increase, while the remaining five demonstrated varying levels of improvement The raw data are included in the report.
Appendix A and the mean test scores, effect size, t-test values, and p-value is shown in
Table 1 Pre- and Post- Test scores for Newton’s Laws conceptual test.
Mean SD ES tobs tcrit p
The pretest and posttests can also be looked at on a question-by-question basis
The number of total points missed for the questions involving the first law decreased from 15 to 10, the second law decreased from 12.5 to 11, and third law remained constant.
Survey Data
Students completed an attitude survey on the first day of the program and again on the final day The pre-survey included two questions about how often students use computers and play video games All eight students reported daily use of both computers and video games, with half of the students using computers multiple times per day and six of the eight students playing video games multiple times per day.
The survey consisted of nine questions aimed at measuring student interest in science and physics and perceptions of the program, with Table 2 summarizing the results Among the eight questions analyzed for effect sizes, questions 3 and 6 showed a large positive effect, questions 1 and 5 showed no effect, question 4 showed a large negative effect, and questions 2 and 7 showed small negative effects; the final two questions were asked only on the post-survey.
Table 2 Pre- and Post-survey results
Survey Statement Mean SD Mean SD ES t obs * p**
3 I like figuring out how things move 3.88 0.64 4.25 0.71 0.59 1.00 0.35
5 I am considering a career in science 3.63 0.92 3.63 0.52 0 0.00 1.00
8 If there is another opportunity to take a course that uses
9 How inspired are you to learn more about physics as a result of this program?
*Observed t-values are compared to a critical t-value of 2.36 (Į=0.05, df=7)
**P-values are calculated at a 95% confidence level
The post-survey also included 3 open ended questions The first question was
“What was your favorite part about this program and why?” Most of the students commented that they really enjoyed designing and playing each other’s’ puzzles
“ I liked creating my own puzzles and playing other people's puzzles ”
“ I enjoyed playing each others puzzles because I could see what other people were doing and thinking about ”
“ I really liked having the chance to play through the game on story mode, but i also really liked creating my own puzzles and trying to get them to work ”
“ My favorite part was using the chamber builder and using the tests myself It was fun doing things that involved testing ”
“ My favorite part was creating the puzzles I found that the most fun because I could make what I wanted with few limits restricting me ”
“ I really liked having the chance to play through the game on story mode, but i also really liked creating my own puzzles and trying to get them to work ”
The second open-ended question invited students to share any additional comments about how Portal 2 was used in the program, allowing them to voice lingering thoughts not addressed by the survey questions This open feedback captured insights beyond the structured items, highlighting how Portal 2 influenced their experiences and perceptions within the program.
“I really liked how intuitive the game was and it really helped me understand more about newton's laws”
Maybe cut back on computer time a bit For someone like me who has trouble with bright screens, staring at a computer for long periods causes eye strain and makes it hard to keep looking at the screen all day.
“I think that Portal 2 was a great choice for this program and it has taught me more about physics.”
“I think Portal 2 was the best choice to teach us about physics.”
The last question asked “How could this program be improved?”
“If we had used the more advanced puzzle creator”
“maybe a little more social interaction, as of right now it's just a bunch of kids sitting in a room playing video games like none of us are there”
“I think the program could be more interactive with science experiments in the game.”
“You could have more experiments and a bigger class”
Figure 3 displays the frequency of common words and phrases provided by the students in their open-ended responses on the survey
Figure 3 Common phrase frequency chart
EnjoyedLikedFunPlayingCreatingStressfulStory modeCreating the puzzlesPlaying each others puzzles
Instructor Observations
A central theme in the instructor’s journal is the students’ inherent interest in and experience with video games, which was already present among them Many students were already familiar with the Oculus Rift and the Omni, underscoring how their gaming background shaped their engagement with virtual reality.
On the first day of the program, the instructor discussed two recent advances in virtual reality, including the VR treadmill During the pre-survey, one student noted that “several times a day” isn’t enough to describe how much they use computers Several students had already played the video game and jumped straight into the Puzzle Maker software One student with prior experience with the software was able to point out an aspect of the program that the instructor hadn’t realized.
Parents expressed strong enthusiasm for the program, frequently thanking the instructor for activities that sparked their children’s interest in science while reinforcing their understanding One parent even practiced the program’s educational video game at home with their child, and another parent shared that their homeschooled child eagerly looked forward to attending.
Observations show that students were intrinsically drawn to the video game but prone to internal distractions within the game itself Although Steam's Family Mode can block access to the online store, it still allows entry to community servers where other Portal 2 maps can be downloaded One student repeatedly became off-task on a community map after the instructor assigned the first task—designing a map to demonstrate Newton’s First Law—and the instructor waited ten minutes to see if he would shift to the task, but intervened when it became clear he would not This same student was also seen multitasking, watching something on his smartphone while solving puzzles A second student became so immersed in one of his maps that he ignored instructions to move on to the next task.
These observations highlight technical issues in the video game, including a crash that occurred while loading a map illustrating Newton’s Third Law, which caused a student to lose that map Fortunately, this was the only technical problem preventing a student from moving forward in the program.
Another notable issue is the game's failure to enforce access control, allowing users outside the program to reach in-game content Students published and downloaded each other's maps via Steam Workshop, turning their creations into assets that were publicly accessible As a result, a non-participant played a student's map and left a rude comment about the puzzle's ease, highlighting a flaw in how user-generated content and access permissions are handled.
Students were eager to play the video game and design puzzles, and they remained highly engaged during these activities The room fell silent as they worked, prompting the instructor to record in the journals that more opportunities for peer interaction should be included There was only one instance of boredom, observed in the program's sole female participant, who stated that she was “bored staring at a screen” and “knew what she was doing.”
Examples of Student Thinking from In-Class Assignments
Student-created puzzles aimed at illustrating Newton's Laws give a window into their grasp of the concepts In the first assignment, many students used tractor beams and faith plates (launch pads) to demonstrate Newton's first law, typically launching or dropping a player or cube from a height while a wall or tractor beam supplies an external force that alters the motion A handout asked students to explain how their puzzle embodied the law, and while some explanations were unclear, those that were provided showed a meaningful understanding of how the law governs motion.
I used faith plates to navigate the map and move the ball around, leveraging their momentum to traverse the level; when the faith plates ran out, the ball came to rest, unable to continue moving, and after flying through the air the player was stopped by another plate, illustrating how these mechanisms halt both ball and character on the map.
“The cube was at rest until the beam pushed it.”
In my puzzle demonstration, I illustrate Newton's First Law by stopping a cube in motion with a tractor beam and applying a force to a resting cube using a piston plate The tractor beam halts the moving object, while the piston plate exerts a controlled force on the stationary cube, highlighting inertia and how motion changes only when an external force acts This setup shows, in a clear, hands-on way, how Newton's First Law governs both moving and resting objects in a tangible puzzle scenario.
“Tractor beam moves a cube until stopped by a pressure plate.”
“You get thrown into the air by the faith plate and stop when you hit the wall.”
“In my first puzzle I used N1L with faith plates You would be walking normally until you walk on one and then it’s force would send you flying.”
In their Newton's second-law puzzles, students primarily used speed gel to reduce friction, noting that this friction reduction led to acceleration They varied how much detail they gave about applying the gel Some students also used tractor beams to alter the speed and direction of a falling companion cube.
Using a range of gels designed to reduce friction and gravity, I enabled smoother movement so the player could run and jump over the hole With the speed and bounce gels in place, the player accelerated as intended; without these gels, friction prevented the player from speeding up.
“When the beam carrying the cube is turned off gravity forces the cube to change velocity.”
“I used the gels to eliminate friction and produce a greater net force to overcome the force of gravity.”
“The speed gel decreases the friction of the ground so you go faster.”
“In the second puzzle I used the speed gel to reduce the friction, therefore causing you to go faster.”
“Sliding cubes on the faith plates.”
For the third assignment the students were tasked with designing a puzzle that demonstrated Newton’s Third Law Most of the puzzles involve collisions between companion cubes and other game elements The comments demonstrate an overall fundamental lack of understanding of the law, with no mention of force pairs either generally or in specific
“The first part in this puzzle involves putting a cube on a faith plate
When you do this you have to bump into the cube in the middle of the two faith plates which exerts a force on you and the cube knowing the cube onto a button.”
“Once the beam releases the cube, the floor pushes against the cube as it slides then once it falls it will hit a wall that also pushes against the cube
“I used two portals to demonstrate that when you jump in one, the on you come out of has an equal but opposite net force.”
“One pressure plate causes another pressure plate to activate.”
“The sphere hits the turret, which causes both of them to move in opposite directions.”
“The ground is pushing up on you as you push on it until its gone, which is when you fall.”
Figures 4 through 6 display the frequencies of key words and phrases used by the students to describe the puzzles they created
Figure 4 Frequency chart for key words and phrases used in the First Puzzle Challenge.
Figure 5 Frequency chart for key words and phrases used in the Second Puzzle Challenge.
Figure 6 Frequency chart for key words and phrases used in the Third Puzzle Challenge.
Ball/Cube Stopped/At Rest
Friction Gravity Speed/Bounce Gels
Stopped Tractor Beam Force Accleration/Faster/Speeding up/Change Velocity