GIÁO TRÌNH PHƯƠNG PHÁP GIẢNG DẠY TIẾNG ANH 2

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC THỦ DẦU MỘT KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ GIÁO TRÌNH PHƯƠNG PHÁP GIẢNG DẠY TIẾNG ANH 2 (TEACHING ENGLISH – FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE) TS Nguyễn Hoàng Tuấn (Chủ biên) Th s Trần Thị Thanh Mai Bình Dương,.

How to choose a coursebook 1.1 Criteria to choose a coursebook 2

The role of coursebook in language teaching 6

Together with the impact of new technologies, there is no doubt that textbooks remain essential in language teaching and serve as ''a framework'' for both teachers and learners In fact, the role of the textbook in the language classroom is a difficult one to define perfectly and exactly

Apart from the fact that teachers are required using materials by program administrators, it is beneficial to make use of materials in language teaching In other words, materials play a crucial role in teaching and learning situation A textbook is a cheap way of providing learning materials in terms of ready-made teaching texts and learning tasks

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Figure 1.2: A model of the lesson (adapted from Allwright 1981)

Allwright (1990) argues that materials should teach students to learn, that they should be resource books for ideas and activities for instruction/learning, and that they

7 should give teachers rationales for what they do From his point of view, textbooks are too inflexible to be used directly as instructional material

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The author also emphasized that coursebooks can serve as a resource in achieving aims and objectives set in advance in terms of learner needs

Hutchinson (1994) and Richards (2001) state that textbooks are a key component in most language teaching situations because learners consider textbooks the backbones of language input, with a balance of skills taught and of language practice while teachers, especially inexperienced ones, may find textbooks a form of guidance to plan and teach lessons

Mention to this issue, Betsy Parrish (2004, p.227) describes benefits of using a textbook:

It assures a measure of structure, consistency, and logical progression in a class

It minimizes preparation time for teachers

It allows learners to review material or preview other lessons

It meets a learner’s needs or expectations of having something concrete to work from and take home for further study

It provides novice teachers with guidance in course and activity design

It may provide multiple resources such as tapes, CDs, videos, self-study workbooks, etc

As a matter of fact, textbooks alone cannot provide students with all the knowledge they require, but they are a major tool in helping learners to make progress Theoretically, experienced teachers can teach English without a textbook However, it is not easy to do it all the time, though they may do it sometimes Many teachers do not have enough time to make supplementary materials, so they just follow the textbook Textbooks therefore take on a very important role in language classes, and it is important to select a good textbook

How to deal with content of language 2.1 Language form 8

Language function 9

A lot of what we say is for a specific purpose Whether we are apologizing, expressing a wish or asking permission, we use language in order to fulfill that purpose Each purpose can be known as a language function

Savignon describes a language function as “the use to which language is put, the purpose of an utterance rather than the particular grammatical form an utterance takes” (Savignon, 1983) By using this idea to structure teaching, the instructional focus becomes less about form and more about the meaning of an utterance In this way, students use the language in order to fulfill a specific purpose, therefore making their speech more meaningful There are at least three different basic functions of language: a Informative – words can be used to pass on information

+ The informative function affirms or denies propositions, as in science or the statement of a fact

+ This function is used to describe the world or reason about it (e.g whether a state of affairs has occurred or not or what might have led to it)

+ These sentences have a truth value; that is, the sentences are either true or false (recognizing, of course, that we might not know what that truth value is) Hence, they are important for logic b Expressive – words can be used to evoke an emotion that is not a direct result of their meaning

+ Poetry and literature are among the best examples, but much of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse is the expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes

+ Two main aspects of this function are generally noted: (1) evoking certain feelings and (2) expressing feelings

+ Expressive discourse is best regarded as neither true nor false c Performative – words can be as a kind of symbol / action in and of themselves + The directive function is most commonly found in commands and requests + Directive language is not normally considered true or false (although various logics of commands have been developed)

+ Example of this function: "Close the windows." The sentence "You're smoking in a nonsmoking area," although declarative, can be used to mean "Do not smoke in this area."

What are some examples of functions of language?

Language functions in many different ways Its most familiar function is informative, i.e it transmits information But it also operates expressively, when we attend to the feelings evoked by the words rather than just their meaning Poetry often combines the informative and the expressive:

“The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew The furrow followed free

We were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea.”

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, “Rime of the Ancient Mariner”

“When Ajax strives some rock’s vast weight to throw, The line, too, labors, and the words move slow;

Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, Flies o’er th’ unbending corn, and skims along the main.”

Alexander Pope, “Essay on Criticism”

“I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he;

I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three.”

Robert Browning, “How They Brought the Good News from Ghent to Aix”

In these verses the rhythm and sound of the words are expressive in themselves Language is also used expressively in prayer; and when a man whispers “sweet nothings” into his wife’s ear, or tells her she looks “scrumptious”; and in such sounds as “wow!” and “scram!”; and when a politician or preacher or salesman uses words to evoke emotional responses

A third area of language is the ceremonial Here the words are not necessarily either informative or expressive, but performative, they are an action in themselves Examples are “I thank you, apologize, warn, greet, guarantee, promise, welcome,” etc These words are complete speech acts They do not describe the acts of thanking, apologizing, warning, etc., but instead are those very acts They are not propositions which can be true or false If a man says, “I bid you good morning,” that does it (even though he may hate you) In its performative sense, language is like any other gesture

11 or symbol: the handshake, the military salute or the gestures of the baseball umpire Austin estimates that there are over a thousand performative verbs in English

Language also functions to tell a story, to declaim, to hypnotize, to play a part, to imagine, to soothe, to ask, to deceive, to demonstrate one’s feelings, and in endless other ways

If we think about a function of language as one that serves a purpose we can see that much of what we see can be considered to be functional Let's take the example of going to a dinner party Arriving at the dinner party we may introduce ourselves, thank the host and ask where to put our coats During the dinner we may congratulate someone on a recent accomplishment, ask advice, express affection and compliment the host on the meal Each of these individual utterances are considered functions of language

How can we teach functions of language?

Krashen and Terrell (1983) suggest that basic communication goals can be expressed in terms of situations, functions and topics It is up to the teacher to plan the situations within which students will be able to use their language for a purpose in the classroom context For instance, if the topic being learned is family and relatives then the situation may be introductions or visiting relatives By creating a situation the teacher is providing the necessary context students need to use the language for a function

In addition to creating situations, teachers must also be prepared to explain that there may be a large number of possible ways to fulfill each function of language For instance greeting an elderly lady on the street would differ from greeting a peer in their home Choosing the appropriate way in which to say something will partly depend on:

1 Your social standing relative to the person you are talking to;

2 How well you know the person;

4 The circumstances under which the communication occurs

How to teach vocabulary 3.1 Methodology in teaching vocabulary 13

Principles of teaching vocabulary 20

No matter how different many theories about vocabulary learning process were written , it still remains the matter of memory Thus, there are several general principles for successful teaching , which are valid for any method According to Wallace, 1988 the principles are:

 aim – what is to be taught, which words, how many

 need – target vocabulary should respond students’ real needs and interests

 meaningful presentation – clear and unambiguous denotation or reference should be assured

Learning vocabulary is a complex process The students’ aim to be reached in learning vocabulary process is primarily their ability to recall the word at will and to recognize it in its spoken and written form

Generally, knowing a word involves knowing its form and its meaning at the basic level In deeper aspects it means the abilities to know its (Harmer 1993):

1) Meaning, i.e relate the word to an appropriate object or context

2) Usage, i.e knowledge of its collocations, metaphors and idioms, as well as style and register (the appropriate level of formality), to be aware of any connotations and associations the word might have

3) Word formation, i.e ability to spell and pronounce the word correctly, to know any derivations (acceptable prefixes and suffixes),

4) Grammar, i.e to use it in the appropriate grammatical form

Techniques in teaching vocabulary 3.4 Strategies in teaching vocabulary 23

Teaching vocabulary is not just conveying the meaning to the students and asking them to learn those words by heart If teachers believe that the words are worth explaining and learning, then it is important that they should do this efficiently Teachers should use different techniques and activities in teaching English vocabulary to motivate the learners, enrich their vocabulary and enable them to speak English

21 properly There are many techniques and activities that teachers can employ and use in teaching vocabulary, such as presentation, discovery techniques and practice Below are several techniques teachers should consider when teaching vocabulary

When it comes to teaching vocabulary words to younger students, there are plenty of easy options Coloring pages and picture books help students visualize the words that they are being taught, which helps with comprehension While older students may not be interested in coloring or reading storybooks, they too benefit from visual stimulation That’s why writing words out or creating flashcards helps in memorization of vocabulary words

Another visual way to teach vocabulary is to find videos that showcase the words used in lesson Videos created for people learning English as a second language are also ideal for teaching younger students words with which they have had little or no exposure YouTube Teachers’ Language Arts section is a good place to look for video content that is safe for classroom viewing

Vocabulary builds upon itself, and association with words that are already familiar to students is one of the most effective means of teaching students unfamiliar words Teachers who help students to associate new words with words they already know well will help students with long- term retention

One method of associating vocabulary words with familiar words is to brainstorm with students Once students have heard a word and its definition, teachers can write the word on the board and ask students to say words that go along with the new vocabulary word If the word is “mare,” for instance, students might say

“horse,” “barn” and “hay.” By writing the words down together, it creates a visual reference for students

Younger children, especially, respond to games, but older kids don’t generally mind a little injection of fun into their school days either Teachers can make vocabulary words more fun to learn by turning the process into a game, like charades

Students can take turns acting out one of the vocabulary words, while the other students guess the word In order for charades with vocabulary words to work, students need some basis in the vocabulary, so teachers should schedule the game of charades a few days after students first get their vocabulary words Teachers may want to release the word list on Monday, for instance, and make Friday game day

A larger vocabulary enhances students’ writing and reading abilities, so what better way for students to retain words than to use them in stories? Teachers can assign stories on an individual basis, or make it a class project By having students incorporate all their vocabulary words correctly into the text, students get the opportunity to learn proper spelling and definitions, and also how to use the words in context

Also, Celce-Murcia recommends every teacher to follow the “3 C’s approach (conveying meaning, checking understanding, and consolidation)

Stage 1 (conveying meaning), the items are presented to the students

The conveying meaning stage, to present new vocabulary to the learners, can be done in many ways, so that the learners can understand and grasp the words’ meanings

At the beginning levels, teachers can convey meanings by bringing authentic material into the classroom, i.e., teachers can bring the objects themselves to the classroom and show them to the learners, such as ‘pen’, ‘rulers’, ‘balls’

However, when that is impossible to bring the object to the classroom such as

‘cars’, ‘animals’, teachers can show their students pictures of those items Besides that, teachers can use mine, action and gesture to convey meaning Concepts like running, walking, or smoking are easy to present in this way At the advanced levels, teachers can convey meaning by using techniques of word relations, (synonyms or antonyms) definitions, explanations, examples, anecdotes, contexts and word roots and affixes E.g “If the teacher is explain the item “a guided tour”, s/he may ask the class to imagine a museum or an art gallery in which there is a group of people listening to a man explaining a picture The man goes from this picture to the next picture and the people follow him The teacher explains that the man is called a guide and the group is on a guided tour If this is not clear, the teacher can illustrate with another example, perhaps of a guided tour of a city”

Stage 2 (checking for comprehension) exercises test how far the students have grasped the meaning of the items

After the stage of conveying meaning, the teacher should check the learners’ understanding, i.e., the teacher can prepare different kinds of exercises to check the students’ vocabulary comprehension Celce-Murcia suggests different kinds of activities for checking the students understanding, such as fill-in-the blank, making

23 pairs and sorting exercises In the fill-in-the blank activity, the teacher gives the students either sentences or short passages with missing words, and then the students have to consider the context of the sentences to work out the probable missing words

In the matching pair’s activities, the students may be asked to pair up verbs with appropriate nouns, mini dialogues, definitions, idioms or funny definitions Lets’ take the following activities of matching up a verb (A words) with an appropriate noun (B words) as an example

In the above activity, the students are asked to match up verb with an appropriate noun While the students are working individually or in groups, the teacher can check their understanding by going round the class from group or group

Stage 3 (consolidation), students deepen their understanding of the items through use and creative problem-solving activities”

Error correction in teaching vocabulary 24

Before the student begins to read, tell the student, "If you come to a word that you do not know, I will help you with it I will tell you the correct word while you listen and point to the word in the book After that, I want you to repeat the word and continue reading Try your best not to make mistakes." When the student commits a

25 reading error (e.g., substitution, omission, 5-second hesitation), immediately pronounce the correct word for the student, have the student repeat the word correctly, and then direct the student to continue reading NOTE: To avoid too many reading interruptions, do not correct minor student errors (e.g., misreading or omitting the or a, dropping suffixes such as -s, -ed, or -ing)

Word supply is the simplest error-correction to use, so it can be ideal for student tutors or parents to use On the other hand, the approach is less powerful than others described here for building student reading vocabulary (Singh, 1990)

According to Haring (1978), the instructor prompts the student to apply a hierarchy of word-attack skills whenever the student misreads a word The instructor gives these cues in descending order If the student correctly identifies the word after any cue, the instructor stops delivering cues at that point and directs the student to continue reading (NOTE: To avoid too many reading interruptions, do not correct minor student errors (e.g., misreading or omitting the or a, dropping suffixes such as -s, -ed, or -ing)

Also, Jenkins & Larson (1979) emphasize the Error Word Drill an effective way to build reading vocabulary When the student misreads a word during a reading session, write down the error word and date in a separate "Error Word Log" The procedure consists of 4 steps as follows

1 At the end of the reading session, write out all error words from the reading session onto index cards (If the student has misread more than 20 different words during the session, use just the first 20 words from your error-word list If the student has misread fewer than 20 words, consult your "Error Word Log" and select enough additional error words from past sessions to build the review list to 20 words.)

2 Review the index cards with the student Whenever the student pronounces a word correctly, remove that card from the deck and set it aside (A word is considered correct if it is read correctly within 5 seconds Self-corrected words are counted as correct if they are made within the 5-second period Words read correctly after the 5- second period expires are counted as incorrect.)

3 When the student misses a word, pronounce the word for the student and have the student repeat the word Then say, "What word?" and direct the student to repeat the word once more Place the card with the missed word at the bottom of the deck

4 Error words in deck are presented until all have been read correctly All word cards are then gathered together, reshuffled, and presented again to the student The drill continues until either time runs out or the student has progressed through the deck without an error on two consecutive cards.

Suggested activities in teaching vocabulary 25

3.6.1 Showing meaning visually (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

A Show the meaning of new words by showing a real object

Write these words on the board

 Simply point at them and say ‘Look – this is a watch.’

Anything that is already in the classroom: furniture, clothes, parts of the body Also many objects that can be brought into the classroom: other items of clothing (hats, ties, handkerchiefs); food (orange, rice), small objects from the home (soap, cups, keys), etc

Demonstrate a presentation of the word ‘watch’

T: Look – this is a watch (pointing to his or her watch) A watch A watch

B Show the meaning of the words by showing a picture

This can be done in two ways, i.e (1) by drawing a picture on the board, (2) by showing a picture prepared before the lesson (a drawing or photograph)

E.g Teachers show the picture and say “This is a cottage Cottage”

C Show the meaning of the words by miming (for most action verbs such as sit, stand, open, write, etc.; some adjectives such as happy, worried, ill, etc.), using actions and facial expressions

E.g Demonstrate a presentation of the word ‘sneeze’ by the following way:

T: Look – (mime someone sneezing) Atchoo! I’ve just sneezed Sneeze Sneeze Can you say it?

3.6.2 Give examples (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

Another way to show what words mean is by giving an example, using the word in context Make these points:

 It is not necessary to give a complicated explanation The meaning can be shown by simple sentences This can be done by making statements using the word or by imagining an example

 A good example should clearly show the meaning of the word to someone who does not know it already We need to add further information for learners to understand the word

 Examples are especially useful for showing the meaning of abstract words, e.g love, happiness, imagine, quality, impossible, etc

E.g Demonstrate this by presenting the word ‘building’ and ‘lazy’

‘Houses are buildings This school is also a building In big cities, there are many large buildings – there are hotels, and offices, and cinemas They are all buildings of different kinds.’

‘Some people work hard Other people don’t work hard – they are lazy For example, I have a brother He is very lazy He gets up late, and then he does nothing all day I say to him, ‘Don’t be so lazy! Do some work!’

3.6.3 Combining different techniques (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

A combination of techniques can be used to show the meaning of a word, i.e picture on the board (be interesting, students can remember it), facial expression (give meaning clearly), examples (show how ‘smile’ is used as a verb) as well as translation

(to make sure everyone understand)

E.g Demonstrate the word “smile” The teacher draws a picture on the board first

T: Look – he’s smiling Now look at me I’m smiling (show by facial expression) Smile We smile when we are happy Smile (gesture) Ss: smile

T: Good What does it mean?

3.6.4 Using a new word (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

The teacher can use a new word to ask a few questions which should be simple and require only short answer round the class to:

+ help the teacher to be sure that students really understand the word

+ give the students more examples of how the word is used, in a way that involves the class

+ give a chance to practise other language (big, small, present simple tense, cook, etc.)

E.g The teacher presents the word “market” She/he will ask questions using the new word like

+ Does your mother go to the market?

+ Do you live near a market?

+ When does she go there?

+ What do they sell there?

3.6.5 Vocabulary expansion (cited from Doff, A (1995) Teach English: A training course for teachers Cambridge: Cambridge University Press)

To introduce a new word, the teacher can expand vocabulary by providing sets of words i.e synonyms (they are words of the same type and have the same general meaning) and the words are related by context (they might all be used when talking about the new word, although they are not synonyms)

- The teacher lists some methods of cooking such as bake, fry, boil, grill, etc

- The teacher can try to elicit the new words from the students and then write them on the board, e.g

+ How do we cook bread?

(cited from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/activities/spot-vocabulary)

This is a visual activity which helps make the process of recalling vocabulary motivating and memorable This short activity works well particularly with lower levels, for vocabulary that has been studied thematically It can be used at any point in a lesson, as a warmer, filler or lead-in

You will need a picture (this could be an illustration from a book, from the web, a photo, even your own sketch!) that depicts 'things' on a particular theme which your students have recently learnt (ex: furniture/ food/ in the classroom)

Prepare one copy per group of two or more students

The teacher holds up the picture so that the students cannot see it, and start building up interest by saying, 'Hey, this picture is interesting, isn't it?', 'Can't you see it?'

The teacher then asks students if they want to see the picture, turning it round for them to see just for a couple of seconds

The teacher then 'accepts' to let them see it for a bit longer, walking round the class for each person to see the picture for a few seconds

After this first 'suspense' stage, the teacher hands out a copy of the picture to students in pairs/small groups The teacher tells them they have two minutes to identify and remember as many things as they can see from the picture, without writing anything down! (Of course you may find your students trying to 'cheat' by writing things down - which of course is fine, as this is likely to help their learning, without their realizing!)

Once the time is up, the teacher takes back the pictures and asks students to write a list of everything they can remember

The teacher then pins up a few copies of the picture around the class for students to go up and check their list

Whole-class feedback can then involve one of various possibilities, depending on the students' mood by this stage and how much more exposure to the vocabulary items the teacher feels they need:

- Students call out the items and the teacher writes them up

- The group with the most items reads out their list for the others to check against

- Each group contributes one item/ the item that forms the longest word on their list They can come up to the board to write this

- The teacher and/or students pick out any items that they found difficult to remember/pronounce and try to improve their knowledge of these items

A variation of this adds a 'grammar' component to the listing of the vocabulary items Following a focus on 'There is/ There are', for example, students can write their list under these two headings Other grammar features that work well are headings for singular/plural, countable/uncountable or adjectives

(cited from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/activities/spot-vocabulary)

This activity follows on from the Think article Lexical exploitation of texts It is often necessary to recycle new words several times in class before they become part of learners' active vocabulary, and the same is true of collocations Whether the collocations are introduced through a text, as described in the article, or explicitly taught, the memory game pelmanism can provide a useful review activity in a later lesson

Three example sets of collocations are included, as well as a template for producing your own

Give students, in groups of 3-4, a set of cut-up cards, and instruct them to place all the cards face-down and spread them out on the table

The first student turns over two cards If the two cards form a strong collocation, he keeps the pair and has another go

If the cards do not collocate, he turns them over again, leaving them in the same position on the table, and the next student has a turn

The winner is the person who has most pairs at the end

Further reading 35

The graphic below shows the different types of English vocabulary and the situations in which they are likely to be found The vocabulary types are shown vertically down the left and the situations in which they are used are shown horizontally along the bottom:

Note: The words in the colored boxes above are examples of those that would normally be found only in the situation under which they are placed For example: it would be unusual to meet in everyday situations the academic word hence (meaning therefore or so) or the subject-specific word denominator (meaning the number below the line in a fraction) Conversely, it would be surprising to read the informal word cops (meaning police) or the idiom a piece of cake (meaning easy) in an academic text Neutral words (orange box) are of course found in all types of situation

3.7.2 Tips for building up your vocabulary

Feeling overwhelmed trying to memorize so many vocabulary words? It doesn't need to be a daunting task! Check out these top strategies and practical pointers that can help you build your word power

 Connect: It's easier to memorize words based on a common theme Make your own connections between words and possibly organize them in a spider diagram

 Write: Practically using vocabulary can help it stick in your mind Write sentences with new vocabulary words or compose a story using a group of words or expressions

 Draw: Expose the artist in you by drawing pictures related to the words you study Your drawings can help trigger your memory in the future

 Act: Get your moves on by acting out words and expressions you learn Or, imagine and act out a situation where you would need to use them

 Create: Design flashcards in English and study them in your spare time Each week make new ones, but continue to review all of them

 Associate: Assign different colors to different words This association will help you recall vocabulary later

 Listen: Think about other words which sound similar to the words you're learning, especially complex words Associate the other words with this new word to help you remember the pronunciation

 Choose: Remember that topics that interest you will be easier to learn Therefore, carefully select words that you will find useful or interesting Even the process of making the choice is a memory aid!

 Limit: Don't try to memorize the dictionary in a day! Limit yourself to 15 words per day, and you'll gain confidence instead of feeling overwhelmed

 Observe: Keep an eye out for the words you're studying when reading or listening to English

Allen, J (199) Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4 – 12 York, ME: Stenhouse

Gairns, R., & Redman, S (1986) Working with Words Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Morgan, J., & Rinvolucri, M (1986) Vocabulary Oxford: Oxford University Press

Nation, I S P (1990) Teaching and Learning Vocabulary New York: Heinle and Heinle

Nation, P and Newtom, J (1997) Teaching vocabulary In Coady, J and Huckin, T (eds) Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Schmitt, D & Schmitt, N (2005) Focus on vocabulary: Mastering the Academic Word List White Plains, NY: Pearson Education

Schmitt, N (1997) Vocabulary learning strategies In Schmitt, N & McCarthy, M (eds) Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition, and Pedagogy Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Stahl, S A (1999) Vocabulary Development Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books

Wallace, M., J (1982) Teaching vocabulary: A practical guide to vocabulary learning Heinemann Educational

How to teach pronunciation 4.1 Methodology in teaching pronunciation 38

Principles of teaching pronunciation 39

There are some basic principles of teaching pronunciation teachers should know as follows o First, recognition practice should precede production practice o Second, the sound to be heard and spoken should be clearly highlighted in short utterances o Third, students should be given the opportunity to hear the same things said by more than one voice as the model o Last but not least, the English sound can be demonstrated in contrast with other English sounds or else in contrast with sounds from native language

Nunan (2004) also mentions five principles of teaching pronunciation teachers should take into account as follows

(i) foster intelligibility during spontaneous speech,

(ii) keep affective considerations firmly in mind,

(iii) avoid the teaching of individual sounds in isolation,

(iv) provide feedback on learner progress and

(v) realize that ultimately it is the learner who is in control of changes in pronunciation

Techniques in teaching pronunciation 4.4 Strategies in teaching pronunciation 42

A summary of some techniques that can be helpful in encouraging and monitoring the learning of spoken language can be seen in Figure 1

Drills went out of fashion with audiolingualism because they became associated with mindless and repetitive approaches to teaching However, drills definitely do not have to be mindless, and they offer a welcome opportunity for learners to get their tongues around new language without the extra strain of trying to communicate Most learners love them, as long as they are done confidently and do not dominate teaching Choral drills, in which the whole class repeats a clear model from the teacher, are useful for anonymous practice Individual drills, in which the teacher selects a student to repeat the item individually after it has been practised in unison,allows the teacher to assess individual progress

Unlike other languages, the word stress patterns of English are relatively unpredictable, and so stress must be marked when dealing with new vocabulary Some teachers use big dots for stressed syllables and small dots for unstressed syllables in a single word One set of dots is plenty for the teaching of word stress, although the smaller dots are useful for marking unstressed syllables within a sentence, as we shall see in the activities described below For marking stress when speaking, claps, clicks, stamps or punching gestures can be used If learners are having trouble with the concept of stress, try getting them to stretch an elastic band around their fingers Get them to pull their fingers apart on stressed syllables, and release the pressure on unstressed syllables, so that they can ‘feel’ the stress physically as the elastic band stretches and relaxes on their fingers

Demonstrating how sounds are made

Although by far the best way of learning to say something is to listen carefully and to imitate, some learners find it helpful to be able to analyze how a sound is made, or to see how it may be different from a similar sound in their own language A good example of where such illustrations can be useful is the practicing of the difference between /l/ and /r/ After learners have listened to these sounds in context and in isolation, they may find it helpful to be shown that a crucial difference between these two in English is that the tongue curls back and does not actually touch the roof of the mouth for /r/, but does touch it for /l/ You can demonstrate this by curling one hand to

41 represent the roof of the mouth, and using the other to demonstrate the action of the tongue in each case

Since a learner’s first language strongly influences their pronunciation in English, it is useful to give each learner their own, individualized practice to help with particular issues One way of keeping tabs on this is to assign practice utterances to individual students and keep a running record of what you have assigned to whom For example, perhaps a student ‘Minh’ in your class has a particular difficulty with word-final consonants and liaison One day, you notice in class that she has problems with the phrase ‘Can I pick it up?’, and so you assign this utterance to her for extra practice, and then ask her to say it to you later in the week Trigger questions or statements that lead on to the target utterance are useful devices to monitor progress in a light-hearted way For example, you could say to Minh, ‘Oh, I dropped it!’, and this would be her cue to say her practice utterance By keeping a record of the triggers and practice utterances for each member of the class, you can target particular issues with individuals in a way that sounds like natural speech

Not surprisingly, some useful techniques that have traditionally been used and are still being used

(1) Listen and imitate: a technique used in the Direct Method in which students listen to a teacher-provided model and repeat or imitate it This technique has been enhanced by the use of tape recorders, language labs, and video recorders

(2) Phonetic training: use of articulatory descriptions, articulatory diagrams, and a phonetic alphabet

(3) Minimal pair drills: a technique introduced during the Audio lingual era to help students distinguish between similar and problematic sounds in the target language through listening discrimination and spoken practice Minimal pair drills typically begin with word-level drills and then move on to sentence-level drills

(4) Contextualized minimal pairs: Bowen’s (1972, 1975b) attempts to make minimal pair drills responsive to cognitive approach criticism or meaninglessness and lack of context In the technique, the teacher establishes the setting (e.g., a blacksmith shoeing a horse) and presents key vocabulary; students are then trained to respond to a sentence stem with the appropriate meaningful response (a or b?)

(5) Visual aid: enhancement of the teacher’s description of how sounds are produced by audiovisual aids such as sound-color charts, Fidel wall charts, rods, pictures, mirrors, props, realia, etc These devices are also used to cue production of the target sounds

(6) Tongue twisters: a technique from speech correction strategies for native speakers (e.g, “She sells seashells by the seashore”)

(7) Developmental approximation drills: a technique suggested by first-language acquisition studies in which second language speakers are taught to retrace the steps that many English-speaking children follow as they acquire certain sounds in their first language Thus just as children learning English often acquire /w/ before /r/ or /y/ before /l/, adults who have difficulty producing /l/ or /r/ can be encouraged to begin by pronouncing words with initial /w/ or /y/, and then shift to /r/ or /l/, respectively:

(8) Practice of vowel shifts and stress shifts related by affixation: a technique based on rules of generative phonology (Chomsky and Halle 1968) used with intermediate or advanced learners The teacher points out the rule-based nature of vowel and stress shifts in etymologically related words to raise awareness; sentences and short texts that contain both members of a pair may be provided as oral practice material

Vowel shift: mime (long i) mimic (short i) Sentence context: Street mimes often mimic the gestures of passersby Stress shift: PHOtograph photography

Sentence context: I can tell from these photographs that you are very good at photography

(9) Reading aloud/recitation: Passages or scripts for learners to practice and then read aloud, focusing on stress, timing, and intonation This technique may or may not involve memorization of the text, and it usually occurs with genres that are intended to be spoken, such as speeches, poems, plays, and dialogues

(10) Recording of learners’ production: Audio and videotapes of rehearsed and spontaneous speeches, free conversation, and role plays Subsequent playback offers opportunities for feedback from teachers and peers as well as for teacher, peer, and self-evaluation

According to Brandi Junious in Strategies & Activities for Teaching Pronunciation from ehow.com, there are some strategies teachers should apply when teach pronunciation

Phonetics focuses on the way sound is produced and how air is modified as it passes through the vocal track, according to University of Iowa's Phonetics website Teaching phonetics is the preliminary strategy for teaching pronunciation as it begins with how sounds are produced Early readers and second language learners may not yet understand the various sounds that each letter can make Teaching phonetics

43 provides the basics of how to use the lips, tongue, throat and airstream to create the sounds of each letter in the alphabet

Students can learn how to pronounce new words by looking for clues in those words You can teach students to look for parts in words that are familiar and pronounce them the same as they do in similar words they already know To help students practice this, set up a like words activity In this activity, provide words students already know how to pronounce and have them practice saying the word as they read it Introduce a new word you want them to pronounce Have them underline the portion of the new word that is like the portion of the word they can already pronounce and have them practice saying that portion of the word Then, have them pronounce the full new word using the clues they gained from equating it to a like word

Often, words that are spelled the same sound the same Students can practice pronunciation skills by reading rhyming words To practice using the rhyming words strategy, have students read the lyrics to songs, poetry or rhyming books Focus on content that is interesting and familiar to the students This will help them relate to the words, anticipate the rhyme patterns and better understand how words that rhyme are pronounced the same

Error correction in teaching pronunciation 45

Paulston and Bruder (1976) suggest the following: Correct errors immediately at single word drilling phase Correct the mistakes by modeling and by asking your students to imitate your pronunciation In conversational exchanges, correct errors only on particular teaching points Correct those items which interfere with comprehensibility, and overlook other mistakes Judge content and form separately Correct carefully without reducing motivation and self-image of the adult learners Doff (1988) identifies three approaches to error correction practiced by teachers

1 “I never let my students make mistakes If they say anything wrong, I stop them and make them say it correctly I don’t want them to learn bad English from each other.” This approach focuses more on errors of students than on what they do correctly This approach hampers developing fluency in English, for committing mistakes is an integral part of any learning activity Currently it is agreed that the errors committed by the students should be considered as an indication of what we still need to teach

2 “I correct students sometimes, but not all the time If we’re practicing one particular language point, then I insist that they say it correctly But if we’re doing a freer activity then I try not to correct too much If I do correct, I try to do it in an encouraging way.”

3 “I try to correct errors as little as possible I want my students to express themselves in English without worrying too much about making mistakes Sometimes

I notice points that everyone gets wrong, and deal with them later – but I never interrupt students to correct them.”

Presently, “most teachers would agree that we need to correct some errors, to help students learn the correct forms of the language But this does not mean that we have to correct students all the time – if we do, it might make them unwilling or unable to say anything at all” (Doff 1988:188)

Doff further gives the following suggestions “As far as possible, encourage the students, focusing on what they have got right, not on what they have got wrong Praise students for correct answers, and even for partly correct answers; in this way, they will feel they are making progress Avoid humiliating students or making them feel that making a mistake is ‘bad’ Correct errors quickly; if too much time is spent over correcting errors, it gives them too much importance and holds up the lesson” (Doff 1988:190)

Suggested activities in teaching pronunciation 46

4.6.1 Practising stress in words and short phrases

This activity works well in conjunction with a speaking activity in which the teacher and learners throw a cushion around the circle The person holding the cushion must tell the class their name and where they live (I’m _ I live in .) The teacher writes his/her name on a card and marks in the stress pattern, for example:

Then the students each take a card and write their names, work out the stress pattern and mark the pattern on their card, for example:

When completed, the students find others with the same pattern and stand in a group with them Then stick the cards on a whiteboard under headings of stress patterns, eg • • / • • • and so on Repeat the activity with the names of suburbs

Once your class is familiar with how you mark stress (e.g with a series of dots, or with a series of small and big claps), there are a number of activities and games that you can organize to help them practise the stress patterns of words or short phrases Some good examples can be found in Hancock (1995) A simple activity involves having students match the stress pattern they hear (or see) to the corresponding phrase or word with that pattern For example, below is a brief list of useful phrases and their stress patterns:

Learners can match the phrase to the pattern clapped out by the teacher, or they can do this in groups, with one student doing the clapping and the others matching the pattern to the words In pairs, they can sort a series of words/phrases into the right pattern, and then ‘test’ their answers by trying to say the words/phrases with the correct stress pattern while other groups check their answers It is useful to have the phrases and stress patterns on separate cards, as these can be used as the basis of a

47 variety of matching games, including the old favorite ‘Snap’ Vocabulary-building activities (for example, matching goods to the shops where they can be bought) can also have an added ‘match the stress pattern’ activity added to them

Learners will usually need some specific focus on sentence stress, particularly if they come from a language background with very different L1 sentence stress patterns The basic concept they need to grasp is that some words are more important than others in an utterance, and that these will be stressed, while relatively unimportant words will be unstressed In the past, we could use the concept of a telegram to illustrate this Perhaps the modern-day equivalent is the mobile phone: if reception on your mobile phone is bad, which words would you choose to shout? These are likely to be the words you would stress in ordinary speech

Once learners have been introduced to word stress and sentence stress, and have grasped the concepts of stress and unstress (or weak and strong, if you prefer) and how unstressed words get squeezed together, they can try the following activity

- Get four students to stand in front of the class and hand each a card with one of the following words: Kim cooked fried rice

- The four students have to arrange themselves so that the sentence has meaning Elicit the stress pattern of the utterance, i.e

- Practise the utterance with the right pattern, and then get four more students to come out to the front and give them four more cards with one of the following words: me a lot of The students must work out where they can insert themselves in the line so that the utterance still makes sense, i.e

Kim cooked me a lot of fried rice

- Elicit which words are stressed and which are unstressed, i.e

LA LA LA la la la LA LA

- Demonstrate physically the ‘squeezing’ together of the three people holding ‘a lot of’, and how quickly we would say these words Practise the utterance with correct rhythm

- Repeat the activity with another group of learners and another set of cards with the words:

Tea or coffee? (LA la LA la?)

- Then add Do you want a, i.e

Do you want a tea or coffee? (la la LA la LA la LA la?)

- Then add a cup of, so that you end up with the line of learners holding cards in order of:

Do you want a cup of tea or coffee?

Jazz chants, a kind of rhythmic spoken chant that can be done with the class in unison, are popular with learners, giving them a sense of the rhythm of a certain kind of English The basis idea of a jazz chant can be extended to more everyday language with chants constructed using more routine language as follows:

And I’ve got a new house • • • • • •

But I’ve lost all my money • • • • • • •

For younger adults, rap music, carefully selected to avoid offence, can be a motivating way to help learners develop a sense of rhythm in English

Stepping out is a useful fun activity that can be used with any utterance to give learners a physical sense of rhythm in English Take any utterance, or get learners to choose one (the longer the utterance, the more challenging the activity) In small groups of three to five, get them to work out where the major stresses would be, for example:

I’d love to come to the party but I’m working on Sunday

Learners then hold hands in their groups and ‘step out’ the utterance – that is, they walk forward as they say it However, they are only allowed to take a step on a stressed syllable – that is, as they say ‘love’, ‘come’, ‘part’, ‘work’ and ‘Sun’ in the above example

Dialogues and role plays can be built up from skeleton dialogues constructed using only the stressed words Simply pick the major stressed word in any interaction, and use these as a kind of ‘shorthand’ for what is said, as in the dialogue shown below that takes place between strangers on a ‘Train to Melbourne’

In groups, learners can work out what the ‘full version’ would be, mark what groups of words go together and how they are said This involves making a number of grammatical as well as stress-related decisions In pairs, the learners can then practise the dialogue, which should look something like that shown below (the number of sense groups that will be said with a different intonation contour is given in brackets)

A: Are you going to Melbourne? (1) B: Yes./Are you going there, too? (2) A: Yep./I’m going to an interview./Are you a student? (3) B: No./I’m a nurse./What about you? (3)

A: I’m unemployed (1) B: Oh!/Is it a job interview?/Are you nervous? (3) A: Yep./Very nervous! (2)

A similar kind of treatment can be given to everyday routines – for example, ‘Did you have a good weekend?’ – so that an exchange such as shown below:

A: Did you have a good weekend?

B: Yes/I went to the movies

B: Red Dragon/It was very scary

Contrastive stress can be illustrated and practised using dialogues, such as the one below Learners must decide which of the two bolded words should be stressed most, i.e bear the contrastive stress

B: Yes there is I bought some yesterday

A: I know, but there isn’t any salt on the table

Once learners are familiar with the use and function of contrastive stress, it can be practised using a game that I call 'Oranges at the supermarket', which can be played with any language on any topic The class is given the first part of an utterance with 'but', for example:

You can buy oranges at the supermarket, but 

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