UCL DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHYFrom First to Second Nature: A study of the River Ravensbourne in South East London Lawrence Beale Collins Supervisor: Dr Ben Page 2010... Keywords: River land
Trang 1UCL DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
From First to Second Nature: A study of the River Ravensbourne in South East London
Lawrence Beale Collins
Supervisor: Dr Ben Page
2010
Trang 2M.Sc in Environment, Science and Society
Please complete the following declaration and hand this form in with your M.Sc. ResearchProject
Trang 3Abstract
The Ravensbourne is a streamfed river in South East London that rises in the village of Keston and meets the Thames in Deptford. It is one of the most engineered yet littleknown rivers within the Thames catchment which rightly suggests a history of utility and constraint rather than of social inclusion and accessibility. Council, commerce and
community partnerships have driven forward a series of regeneration projects that have successfully opened up sections of the river to allow a more natural appearance and ecology to develop. Social access to the river’s landscape is at an unprecedented level while perceptions of nature are also growing positively. This thesis will discuss the
political ecology of these productions of space and nature and whether Smith’s theories of second nature, a nature under capital, are being challenged by growing social interactions and the subsequent perception change of urban nature. The experiential commonalities of urban water among stakeholders in river projects, using Burgess and Strang for guidance, will be compared with their visions for the future and the practical issues involved in delivering that vision. Practicalities facing governance include flood alleviation
engineering, work by Gurnell, Tapsell and Wharton will be accessed, and capital growth through urban renewal. Often contradictions may occur when capital meets ecological concern and shared values within this realm will be unwrapped to discover how
catchment management is negotiating its way forward. Community interventions have proved successful in mediating the landscape between scientists and councils as
regeneration projects move into public consultation. While bridging this gap other issues come to light, such as the appearance or nonappearance of health and safety concerns or what kind of nature should be included. The wishes of some sections of the community forsuccessionled natural improvements have led to questions of aesthetics, the viability of a river with agency and a blueprint for urban nature. This cultural turn has added
momentum to river regeneration as these new spaces provide greater social interest, yet there are constraints to full naturalization placed by funding and spatial availability. Keywords: River landscapes, river regeneration, political ecology, first and second nature,perceptions of nature, urban greenspace, social interaction & flood alleviation
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Teresita Dennis for invaluable input and patience; the members of QWAG and Rivers for People that have had to put up with me in the summer of 2010, these include Chris McGaw, Nick Pond, Matthew Blumler and Trevor Phybus (of Pheonix
Trang 4Word count: 14,998
(Excluding text in figures and boxes)
From First to Second Nature: A study of the River Ravensbourne in South East London
Trang 5A quick briefing (Fig 1), wader and walkingpole selection and headtorch check and we were off, entering the river just downstream from the Elverson Road DLR station.
Immediately we got into conversation with a man sitting on his jacket on the shingle beach, he said he had seen foxes, badgers, kingfishers and plenty of herons over the last
Trang 6Fig 1: Ravensbourne Walk 30/6/10
Passing the Tesco site, where my family once ran the Broadway Press, and up to the Ravensbourne/Quaggy confluence, the conversation turned to Lewisham council’s plans for the river. It was agreed that the Confluence Gardens plan, while highly contested, was
a vast improvement on the current highsided and oppressive banking, a JG Ballardesque highway of concrete and brick (Fig 2) that laid testament to mid 20th century mindsets of overzealous flood control through hard engineering. Taking the right fork, we entered the first of many tunnels under roads, the river flattened, slow and featureless, there was little talking here as we felt the oppressive weight of urbanisation, our waders glided through
Trang 7we soldiered on in single file and out the other side toward Cornmill Gardens and our second midstream view of river regeneration
Fig 2: Ravensbourne/Quaggy confluence
Shoals of dace and chub shot upstream in front of us and ducklings scattered as we edged forward, attempting to minimise the disturbance to this apparently abundant landscape.
Nick stopped to dig out a giant hogweed, another species on the invasive hitlist, as Chris noted coltsfoot, burdock, speedwell and the ubiquitous buddleia (another nonnative species) amongst the flora. Trevor became engaged in conversation with a
Trang 8focussed our concentration to the top of our waders and the first of many footballs drifted
by (Fig 3). The culvert extended for 200m, on the way some stopped to pick cherries from a large tree
Fig 3: Upstream from Cornmill Gardens
leaning into our path, there was also a mature fig tree to admire, well out of our reach yet abundant in unripe and promising fruit. At Wearside depot we came across some nesting islands placed in the culvert by staff, chained platforms that rise in high water, these were populated by moorhens and we duly took the opposite bank with the message going down
the line to keep silent. And so under the bridge by the adhesives factory (now demolished) and into Ladywell Fields. The Ravensbourne proper runs to the east past Lewisham Hospital while a new meandering Fig 4 Ladywell Fields south
channel has been cut into the park, we stepped up into the open and made our way to the café for lunch. A roundtable discussion talked of the beauty of Brookmill and Cornmill
Trang 9concrete would be difficult as buildings and other developments had driven right up to form the culvert banks. As we edged back into the stream after lunch a dead chub floated
by, this prompted talk of a minor pollution incident the month before that had been
reported by a member of the public, however very little was known of its extent and whereabouts but it did rather complement the dead rat found earlier in the wade. To the south of Ladywell Fields the river, while a straightened channel, reaches the most
naturalised (Fig 4) of all the sections on our route with banking and woodland or fields on
either side. There was abundant flora andfauna, the deep turquoise of the
damselflies (Fig 5) catching the eye while far in the distance wagtails darted from bank to bank
Again there was almost silence among the group but this time induced by the sense of privilege almost as if we had been granted an audience with nature, Fig 5 Damselfly
and a feeling of relief that there was a counterpoint to the concrete culverting. Beyond the banks are three fields that lie between Catford Bridge and Catford stations and Ladywell. This ‘natural’ stretch of the river was cleared and straightened by railway engineers in
1892 and toeboarded in sections through flood prevention work in the 1960s
Sweeping east under the high bridgestructure the river meandered through a series of high culverts before entering into the first of the two long tunnels we would
Trang 10Fig 6: Ravensbourne/Pool confluence
We take the left and walk to the distant aperture of light, there is vegetation and debris here which we are careful to step over. We progress further to the Ravensbourne/Pool confluence, while the Pool, to the right, looks inviting we take the left fork and enter a long, straight and dilapidated culvert section that forms the boundary for the trading estate
to the east and a small industrial complex to the west. Flow pipes seep an oozing orange liquid into the stream while builders rubbish and supermarket bags litter the channel, there
is little wildlife here except for our sentinel, the yellow wagtail.
Two policevehicle engineers peer over the fence telling us we are mad and that we wouldvery likely ‘catch something’ from the river, at this point, given the amount of rubbish strewn everywhere, we would not entirely disagree. The positive correlation between sections of concrete culverting and the amount of rubbish thrown into the river seems obvious, there is a sense that if you demonstrate
that the river is uncared for then the lead will be followed.This unloved section of the Ravensbourne gave way to thetunnel at Southend, just beforethe agreed end of the walk at the Meadows Estate. The riverenters a small tunnel, possibly 1.5m high and 2m across. As
we approach, two of the groupdecline this last challenge and
Fig 7: Southend tunnel (footballs, trees & flies)
Trang 11we are sitting back on the bank where the plan was hatched, exhausted but grateful for a chance to see both the wonders and terrors of the Ravensbourne. Enthusiastically, we agree to set up another summer walk from the source in Keston to where we were,
discussing what other hurdles could possibly be encountered
1.2 Description and rationale
“We have hidden away many of the rivers and streams that were much more of an
everyday presence in an earlier, less built world. How many Londoners are even aware of the rivers concealed beneath their streets: the Effra, Westbourne, Graveney, Falcon, Quaggy, Wandle, Walbrook, Tyburn or Fleet?”
(Roger Deakin 2001)
The River Ravensbourne rises in Keston, Kent and joins the Thames at Deptford Creek, travelling through some of the most densely urbanised areas of London. The river is recognised as one of the most ‘engineered rivers in metropolitan London (Peddie 2010) and one of the least known (Deakin 2001). The 66kmwide catchment (Fig 8) has
experienced pressures of both industrial and postindustrial development over time and, assuch, its tributaries meander through a patchwork of concrete culverting and green space. However, in recent decades a change in attitude has seen urban nature revitalised as a complementary factor in commercial development and as a means to enhance public space. According to Gandy (2006, 71) there is now a ‘more dialectical, inclusive and culturally determined conception’ of nature in the city, this suggests a political ecology
Trang 12But just how far do river regeneration projects succeed as ‘culturally determined
conceptions’ and how do politics, economics and society mediate in their creation? River landscapes along the Ravensbourne encourage nature to have agency, once regenerated, rather than yield to the constant attention of park keeper’s secateurs.
The river regeneration process is, in effect, an invitation extended to nature to populate spaces vacated by industry and development, this project will discuss what kinds of natureare intended for these new conceptions and unwrap the roles played by capital, or the commercial world, and society in their development. This retrieval of nature opens discussions of the subsequent ‘crack’ in the urban fabric in which a produced nature appears and flourishes to create new relationships between place and nature (Smith 2008, 107). These relationships create realms for the local community to explore; familiarities with their environment are altered aesthetically and experientially as new meeting places are created and opportunities to socialise materialise. In Lynchian terms this presents a relocation of familiar ‘nodes’ (Lynch 1960) such as meeting places and recreation areas to
a more naturecentred process of georeferencing – “I’ll meet you by the river.” As such, river restoration enables the creations of new pathways through the urban environment.
Recent river regeneration projects in the Ravensbourne basin at Sutcliffe Park, Ladywell Fields and Cornmill Gardens, while being multiaward winning and praised by the Queen,rely on increased public access as an indicator of success. Yet whilst these projects are generally unopposed there is little critical analysis given to the social processes at work in river restoration. These are significant new interventions not only in the urban landscape but in the way the relationship between nature and the city is imagined. This research project will locate itself within the amorphous stakeholder group known as ‘the public’ to assess how the expectations of local people are being met in these projects and how
Trang 131.3 Aims and objectives
The methodology used in the research aims to access and discuss the differences of opinion and experiences shared by the stakeholders connected to the river. These may range from feelings of personal wellbeing, dissatisfactions with the proximity of
development, personal memories of interaction with water to discussions on whether succession should be encouraged for river nature. Personal memories of natural water, especially those from childhood, can often provide a link to behaviours or attitudes
developed in later life (Burgess 1994 & Tapsell 1995). These early interactions may be also be inscribed in later actions and elements of priority as clearly different groups of actors engaged in river restoration have different perspectives, yet they may have
experienced similar encounters with water as children. Recovering such information through the interview and other ethnographic approaches may reveal more about their motivations now. The process of environmental governance is also multilayered as publicpolicy and environmental legislation mediate river projects. From the water quality and floodalleviation demands of the Environment Agency and the Water Framework
Directive (WFD) (EC 2000) to the potential funding stream created by the offset available for natural public amenity within Section 106 (Local Government 2006). The production
of nature in this urban river context allows for a debate on perceptions of nature itself. From a nature overtly choreographed by capital and development to a nature interacted with by the local community. This thesis will therefore attempt to question whether the broad church of second nature, a nature under capital, is sufficient in theoretically
Trang 14Ravensbourne. There will also be a discussion on whether environmental legislation and constraints placed on such projects by organisations such as the Environment Agency can act as a barrier to a more natural landscape. Histories of urbanisation and development along the catchment may dictate how local communities perceive nature; the presence of the river, therefore, may allay fears of detachment from nature. The long history of utility and industrialisation along the Ravensbourne may mean that local residents have never known nature in this area and, if so, what impact does river regeneration have on these people? Therefore to find out we must talk to people about the river, to discuss flora and fauna, sounds and smells and hopes and fears, indeed, to talk about where it has come from and where it is going, both metaphorically and physically
1.4 Geomorphology
The Ravensbourne is a springfed stream that rises to the south of Keston at Caesar’s Well(TQ 417637) on the north (dip) slope of the North Downs and flows northwards through the boroughs of Bromley, Lewisham and Greenwich to join the Thames at Deptford Creek. The main rivers in the catchment are the Ravensbourne, as the main branch, the Quaggy (E) and the Pool (W). The geomorphology reveals large areas of
Trang 15underlying pebbly Blackheath beds and smaller areas of underlying sandy Woolwich and Reading beds in places (EA 1996).
While the main branch of the Ravensbourne rises in Keston there is an eastern branch rising at Nobody’s Wood at Locks Bottom, this is the Kyd Brook. The confluence of the main and eastern branch is just below Mason’s Hill in Bromley. The length of this
watercourse is 25kms. The Kyd Brook tributary draining the eastern flank becomes the Quaggy at Sundridge Park before joining the Ravensbourne at Lewisham High Street, the confluence being by the bus station (see Fig 2), and the total length of this system is 23kms. The Pool River, including the Chaffinch and the Beck, drains the western flank of
Trang 161996, the heavily engineered concrete channels and toeboarding sections make up 30kms
of the 66kms of channel (EA 1996), however since the ‘daylighting’ of the river at
Chinbrook Meadows, Sutcliffe Park etc, this ratio has altered. As is typical for any urban river, flows following rain events are dictated by runoff from tarmac, paved streets and walkways. The dense urbanisation within the Ravensbourne catchment ensures a fast return of rainfall into streams and gullies feeding the main branch.
Serious flooding has not occurred in Lewisham since 1968 (Fig 9), when Lewisham and Catford town centres were affected. Previous flood events occurred in 1928 and 1965 withthe 1928 flood the product of overtopping from the Thames (EA 2010). The last flood was
in 1992 when 50 properties along the Quaggy at Lee were affected (EACE 2009)
Fig 9 Bromley Road flooding in 1968 (Wright 2010)
Trang 17movements but to the weather. In September 1968 there was flooding across the South East of England, with the Lewisham area badly hit: ‘Hundreds of families were… trapped
in their homes in Lewisham, South London, which was one of the parts worst affected. Allthe families could do was to shore up their doors with planks, chairs, and carpets as the water swept into their homes. The worst affected part of Lewisham was the High Street. The River Quaggy, normally only 6 inches deep, rose in some places to 15ft. In Carthorn Street the water rose to 4ft. Traffic was halted as it stretched from Catford to New Cross. Extra police were called to filter some of the traffic through side roads’ (The Times, 17 September 1968)
The Environment Agency gauging station at Catford Hill, which measures flow and depth
as part of the London flood warning network, states that river flow can change from low
or mean to peak in just 30 minutes after a rain event. The discharges measured at Catford Hill are: Average is 0.43 m3/s (15 cu ft/s); Max 28.4 m3/s (1,003 cu ft/s) at 9 June 1992 and Min 0.09 m3/s (3 cu ft/s) at 23 May 1992 (EA 2010) with the average annual rainfall between 19611990 at 664mm. The potential for flood events to reoccur has led to the development of many of the restoration projects within the catchment, one example of this
is at Sutcliffe Park.
The restoration at Sutcliffe Park in Eltham saw the creation of a flood storage area that extended across 35 acres of parkland, previously used as football pitches, which included several wetland zones. The park was an earth embankment 2.5m high and 480m long that surrounds an excavated site where floodwater is diverted into a 85,000 m3 storage area
Trang 18of marginal edges, wetlands and lake with reed margins, setback footpaths and buffer zones, wild flower meadows and native shrubs and trees. The excavated areas include flow control structures that allow containment and release of flood waters (EA 2009). According to Geraldine Wharton (2010), tests at Sutcliffe Park in 2008 revealed a
sediment quality of 80% silt clays or contaminants. Heavy metal sediment results revealedthat mean values of Cadmium, Copper, Lead and Zinc exceeded Canadian Interim
Sediment Quality Guidelines. Mean concentrations of all dissolved heavy metals were below EA EQS guideline levels while mean nitrate levels were classified as moderate and mean phosphate levels as high. The culverting at the NE side (by the Ferrier Estate) prevented sediment improvement which, if allowed to develop, is likely to impact on the viability of the flood alleviation scheme as base levels will be raised in some areas of dense instream vegetation. It is possible that this interruption to flow and the potential impacts will be monitored under the WFD’ s River Basin Management Plan, in which the Ravensbourne catchment falls, as a 2% improvement Thameswide is sought by 2015 in order to achieve a ‘good’ status (WFD 2010).
Trang 192 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Nature and Society
The literature used for this project addresses the theories and concepts that need to be unwrapped in order to understand our contemporary discourse of socionatural relations. Disciplines of human geography, environmental science, social science and philosophy have produced a widerange of progressive theories of society’s interactions with nature. Opinions vary widely about which theories are most useful, but there are some constant themes that cut across different approaches and analytical frameworks; for example the
Trang 20paradoxically, society’s interaction with nature is usually one that is characterised in terms
of respect, with a desire to both control and protect nature (Soper 1999). While there may
be an accusation that attempts to integrate natural themes into development are mere windowdressing or empty gestures (Smith 2008, 21) that conform to the paradigm shift inenvironmental attitudes during the 20th century, there is a widespread belief also that the impact of nature on development and the community creates a genuine concern for
nature’s wellbeing. The impact on society of uneven development and degradation of landscapes has led to a debate about stewardship and a general desire to ‘draw the line’ onfuture destruction of nature. However, the nature that we see and the ideals we envisage for nature’s future are mediated through capital and the production of river regeneration is undertaken within the conditions of development
which captures a sense of our personal feelings, a yearning for or fear of nature. Castree suggests that changing attitudes to societynature relations, particularly those associated with conservation, rely heavily on ideas of external nature because of their abhorrence of the destructiveness of society, which in turn suggests that a more sympathetic valuation of nature occurs whereby its ‘essential quality’ (2001, P6) is recognised.
These ideas can be usefully explored using the concepts of first and second nature (Fig
11). Society’s internal yearnings for an abundant and unspoilt external nature are captured
in the conception of “first nature” (Smith 1984, 2008), that is a pristine, primary nature
Trang 21Concepts of first, second and even third nature, are not new. Neil Smith’s discussion on first and second nature is based on Karl Marx’s work on nature under capital in the mid 1800s (Pepper 1993). Marx said that first nature gave birth to humankind, which saw the creation of second nature; a nature ‘as part of the natural evolution of society’ (Bookchin 1987). However, Marcus Tullius Cicero (10643BC) mentioned first nature (wilderness),
second nature (sowing corn etc) and third nature or terza natura (the landscaping of
gardens). The artistry of landscaping, it was believed, was capable of demonstrating all three aspects of nature (Dixon Hunt 2000)
(Fig 11)
Such forms of nature are located within society, whether they a resource utilised by industry or a landscape viewed from the top of a mountain. Such is the extent of human activity, Smith suggests, that it is now meaningless to try and actually find first nature – even those landscapes such as the poles, the ocean floor or unexplored rainforests have
been transformed into potential commodities valued for the resources they might hold and
claimed by capitalist states seeking to assert their ownership of resources that might be discovered in the future. As such, if it is agreed therefore that all nature is now socially mediated it places first nature in the realm of a utopian ideal that is unobtainable.
According to Pepper (1993, 117), everything is a commodity, even amenity and aesthetic enjoyment, to such an extent that all of first nature has become second nature. But was there ever a time or place when this was not true? Schmidt (1971) argues that in its pre
Trang 22on an object is commodification whether or not it falls into a capitalist framework. In other words there is nothing distinctly capitalist about the process of transforming first into second nature
If it is understood that there is no first nature as all nature is socially mediated, then creations of natural space, such as national parks, or in this context river regeneration projects, are appropriations and approximations of perceived first nature. By definition
humans can’t create first nature, because first nature is that which is not human. Yet the
essence of these projects is that there is a persistent idea that these landscapes are part of first nature. Such an idea, some critics suggest, must therefore be something of a delusion. Smith (2008, p77) states: ‘With the production of nature at a worldscale, nature is
progressively produced from within and as part of a socalled second nature. The first nature is deprived of its originality’. Indeed, what is deemed as natural is in fact a social product that is tailored to current human needs and perceptions. As Kate Soper (1999, p56) observes: ‘Much of which ecologists loosely refer to as ‘natural’ is indeed a product
of culture, both in the physical sense and in the sense that perceptions of its beauties and value are culturally shaped’. As urban cultures diversify so do perceptions of what nature really is.
The idea of a return to the ‘wildness’ of nature is of particular importance with regard to the Ravensbourne catchment as contemporary engagement through planning, developmentand community actions are remodelling a ‘nature’ where the organic and artefactual meet
Trang 23about wildness, but perceptions of what nature is remain with the individual, as an internal
assessment, so for some the introduction of a few reeds and a few ducks may well be an approximation to wilderness. As William Cronon (1996, p86) reflects:
‘second nature’ into new hybridised territory whereby localised aspects of wildness provide an antidote for society against capital’s domination through urbanisation
Trang 24The creation of such localised ‘new natures’ and the general agreement by both
community and commerce that they are of benefit, has led to an ‘urban revolution’ in the productions of space, new spaces, as described by Henri Lefebvre (Merrifield 2006, p102), where brownfield and previously neglected parkland sites are sculpted into havens for nature. A paradigm shift in urban green space development has enabled new
stakeholder partnerships to form, which include the public, and the creation of these more inclusive groupings culturally defines new spaces, therefore ‘the shift from one node to another must entail the production of a new space’ (Merrifield 2006 p107). Lefebvre accused much development in the 1960s and 70s of being antihumanist and, drawing critically from Marx, claimed the productions of space always underwrote landscapes of capitalism accumulation. Since then the creation of urban greenspace has seen a
broadening of dialectics that concentrate more on public access and less on exclusivity whereby nature is recognised as a ‘good’ for the community as a whole.
Viewing urban nature through the lens of Lefebvre’s ‘urban revolution’ and the idea of theproduction of space generates new insights about nature itself. As Gandy (2004, p364) observes: ‘Nature is not conceived as an external blueprint or template but as an integral dimension to the urban process which is itself transformed in the process to produce a hybridized and historically contingent interaction between social and biophysical
systems’ and (p365) to acknowledge a trend toward more communityfriendly space production, rather than spaces that simply support commerce.
Seeing rivers as an integral element within the urban fabric has opened new opportunities. Communities historically excluded from the Ravensbourne, either through industrial development or flood alleviation practices, now find they have greater access to nature. This progression toward a more organic and naturereflective mode of urban space
production sees the urban redefined away from the industrial (Heyman 1999), which is not
Trang 25governance, planning and fiscal considerations, so wideranging frameworks of political ecology emerge (Johnson 2003; Gandy 2004; Evans 2007) .
Castree (2001 p204) notes in ‘Social Nature’: ‘The production of nature approach implies that it is possible to balance human and ecological needs by recognising that all appraisals
of nature and what to do with it are made by humans in the first place.’ With planning
now leaning toward a more ecocentric line of development it has been possible to strip away some of the physical engineering constraints placed on nature in the past and allow communities to benefit from improved ecology. Kaika (2005 p14) believes that traditionalideas on the spirituality of nature have found their way to the boardroom: ‘Much of modern urban planning has been infused and inspired by particular scriptings of the
‘nature’ of nature and the ‘nature’ of the city’. The benefits of rejuvenated greenspace as aplace of wellbeing in terms of physical and mental enhancement are well documented (see Fuller et al 2007, Whatmore & Hinchcliffe 2003, Pincetl 2007 etc) and the knockon effect within communities prompts a deliberatively democratic approach to planning through discussions with local communities. Production of a new community space at Ladywell Fields, with the River Ravensbourne relandscaped to become central to a green space previously blighted by crime and abandoned by the community (QUERCUS 2008). However, the influences of capital are everpresent in the productions of space in the area. The Lewisham Gateway plan intends to use greenspace such as Confluence Gardens and
an avenue of trees to lead into a new commercial zone while the Ravensbourne
Improvement Plan is designed to use river nature’s aesthetics to increase leisure
Trang 26experience of rivers as a key to explaining motivations later in life is pursued here
Allowing adults to freely recollect past enjoyment of rivers may provide a clue as to what the children of today may also wish for when encountering a newly regenerated river.
We had some jam jars with us, with a bit of string tied to the top, and
my brother and me would walk down this tree-lined avenue and down
the bank of the Quaggy Now this was before it had a concrete overcoat
given to it, and when it just used to wander among the trees and shrubs
by the side of the farm It's my earliest recollection of getting to know
the sounds of the country And there were the sounds of the insects
and the sound of the water going over the pebbles But the greatest
enjoyment was with this little net thing we had Trying to scoop up
tiddlers or catch newts, or anything else we found.
(William’s comments in Burgess 1997 pgs78)
Trang 27Burgess and Strang demonstrate that the meaning of landscape and culture are crucial for
an understanding of the value and significance of rivers. The realisation that pollution and culverting makes us ‘shed tears for the landscape we find no longer what it was’ (Burgess
1994 p76)
The progression of urbanriver studies into areas of perception, dealing mainly with enthnographic approaches (Strang 2001 & Burgess 1997), is due in part to the constant evolution of the subject away from a technocentric base, this broadly reflects progressions
in geography studies from the physical to the more socially inclusive. There has also been
an evolution in river studies on governance that has seen a progression from a
predominantly engineering focus to one where geomorphology and ecology take a
prominent role in decision making (Hooke 1999; Douglas 2000; Logan 2001; Morley & Karr 2002). These features have refocused river studies away from human asset protection
to become assets in their own right. Studies of stream ecology, stream hydrology, stream geomorphology and water quality form the basis of many river classifications (Whiting & Bradley 1993; Chessman 1995; Brierley & Fryis 2000; Harris, Gurnell, Hannah, Petts 2000), including those specific to urban areas (Anderson 1999; Gregory & Chin 2002; Chin & Gregory 2005). The hydrological characteristics of urban catchments such as the Ravensbourne are of primary importance in determining how a river responds to
urbanisation and regeneration (Findlay & Taylor 2006). The difference between river rehabilitation and complete restoration is often the difference between actual impacts and desired outcomes. Restoration, as Findlay and Taylor describe, often fails to target
magnitude and frequency of flows. Informative studies on potable urban water have also been accessed (Gandy 2002, Kaika 2005, Kaika & Swyngedouw 2000). Aforementioned works by Tapsell and Burgess tackle social implications of restoration while Chin & Gregory and Wharton offer more contemporary scientific appraisals.
Trang 283.1 Methodology Rationale
The study of an urban river such as the Ravensbourne requires wideranging empirical research methods. From the more sedentary visit to local libraries’ collections of historicaltexts to the donning of waders for river channel work and walks. As such, a number of methodologies were employed in the classical ethnographic tradition in order to
accumulate a more grounded view of the catchment, its history and the current state of affairs regarding the river and the surrounding communities. While the study area is the river Ravensbourne catchment within the London boroughs of Lewisham, Greenwich and Bromley, the main focus is the river as it passes through Lewisham. Participation and discussions were also conducted within Greenwich at Creekside and Sutcliffe Park and Bromley at Beckenham Place Park and at the source in Keston. Initial exploration of the subject area involved, as advised by Cook and Crang (1995), initiating and developing contacts with organisations such as local borough planning and environment departments, voluntary local groups involved in river stewardship, NGOs delivering EU policy and LNGOs conducting cleanup operations and educationbased community events serving all age groups. Participating in such events, such as the 3Rivers Cleanup run by
Thames21 and delivered through Rivers for People and the Quaggy Waterways Action (QWAG) group, enabled not only the development of a clearer understanding of the current issues involving the catchment but also enabled the gathering of subjects willing to
be interviewed for the project. Before participation and subsequent interviewing could take place the prerequisite risk assessment was completed while all interviewees were made aware of the exact purpose of the discussion, who would be reading the end report and where it would be available for viewing. A deliberate attempt was made to conduct interviews at or near the river. All interviews were conducted in the public realm, often at the Ladywell Fields Café, except in the case of Matthew Blumler of QWAG where the interview was held in his garden which backs on to the River Quaggy
Trang 29Primary data gathering therefore involved ethnographies such as interviews and casual conversation (Strang 2001, 24), with notetaking throughout participation. This iterative inquiry would enable the grouping, linking and regrouping of data (Grbich 2007, 21) until
a variety of narratives may be provided across chosen subject areas so that a balanced view may be presented. Also aiding the interview process would be information gathered during content analysis at local libraries. All resulting interview/discussion textual results would be subjected to analysis involving the selection of themes and keywords (Grbich
2007, 116)
The involvement of borough planners and community participants, the numbers of
interviewees decided upon and the structure of the ethnography has been inspired by the methodologies and discussions within the work of Jacqui Burgess, Paul Cloke and Owain Jones and Noel Castree and Tom MacMillan. Interviewees were selected from a wide stakeholder base that reached into the local community, local governance and NGOs working on the Ravensbourne. Castree and MacMillan’s work on the reimagination of nature contains a description of a study conducted by Eden, Tunstall and Tapsell (2000) whereby a project to naturalise a stretch of the river Cole, southeast of Birmingham, was envisaged using actor network principles. This work laid the foundation for a project taken
up by the River Restoration Project (subsequently the River Restoration Council) to create
‘a collaboration between local and statutory authorities and volunteer groups to achieve a substantial increase in the wildlife quality of an 11km section of the Cole and adjacent land in Solihull and Birmingham. The objective was to replace a concrete channel with a less constrained river channel’ (RRC 2008). The parallels between the Cole project and the river Ravensbourne were clear, not least the desire to save the rivers from their
‘concrete overcoat’ (PenningRowsell & Burgess 1997).
Trang 30understanding of the history of the catchment to describe the journey of development to present day while also providing a link to theories of first and second nature, from unspoiltnature to a nature negotiated within the parameters of urbanisation. A late addition to the primary data gathering process was an online survey asking ‘What is your experience of the river Ravensbourne?’ This was agreed thanks to Jill Goddard of the Thames Estuary Partnership and Nick Pond and Chris McGaw of Rivers for People
3.3 Secondary data description
Secondary sources include: The Rivers for People evaluation survey concerned with attitudes to nature within the borough of Lewisham, River Restoration Council work on Sutcliffe Park in the borough of Greenwich and their London Rivers Action Plan, the QUERCUS project data from the Ladywell Fields project, various Environment Agency initiatives including the 2100 action plan and an environmental assessment of the
catchment, the Ravensbourne Improvement Plan and the vision for the Waterways Link
Trang 313.4 Personal motivations
Travelling around Lewisham over the last few years I have seen the Ravensbourne given anew lease of life within projects at Cornmill Gardens and Sutcliffe Park. Families have enjoyed hot summer afternoons by the river at Ladywell Fields and pensioners sit and reflect further downstream in Brookmill Gardens, but still rubbish is thrown over the bridge by the bus station in Lewisham’s centre. So some people care about the river and some people don’t. Some people just see the river as water flowing through concrete and make no connection between the naturalised sections at Cornmill Gardens and the bleak engineering by the bus station, even though they are just 100yds apart. I want to find out what is being achieved by river regeneration and how much scope is there for changing perceptions amongst the community. I was born in Lewisham Hospital, next to Ladywell Fields, my parents lived by the source of the Ravensbourne in Keston at the time. As a boy I worked in my father’s, and grandfather’s, printing works next to the
Quaggy/Ravensbourne confluence, always peering over the wall to look for fish. Out of school we would cycle round Keston ponds, build small boats, fish and sometimes swim
in the water. I now live a mile from the old printworks, now a supermarket carpark, and I’m curious as to how communities in the catchment interact with the river. Perceptions ofurban nature are wide and varied. The river regeneration projects along the Ravensbourne provide an ideal opportunity to gauge these perceptions and, as river nature is given the chance to bloom in a unique way, it is an important area in which to discuss concepts of wilderness, first and second nature and the historical impacts of capital. Also from a practical point of view, it meant that I could cycle to interviews and to various events, such as the 3Rivers CleanUp
Trang 32To journey through the catchment of the Ravensbourne is to witness a river altering over time. The riparian landscapes that adorn the various tributaries remain a palimpsest of the
Trang 331965, p916) journey through histories of celebration and constraint to finally be broken out of its concrete overcoat (PenningRowsell & Burgess 1997) and emerge a a newly blossomed community asset. The following is an empirical review of the historical texts that form the basis of the known history of the Ravensbourne catchment.
4.2 Ancient history
According to Walters (1930) the earliest recorded uses of the Ravensbourne are found in descriptions of Julius Caesar’s army camping near Holwood House, south of Keston, as hepursued Cassivellannus across the Thames in 54 B.C On seeing ravens swoop to drink at the source, Caesar decided on ‘raven’sbourne’, or raven’s stream, to describe the place (Fig 12). Ackroyd (2007), however, suggests that Caesar was camped on Blackheath whenmaking the discovery, a notion unsupported by most texts as Blackheath is closer to the Quaggy tributary some seven miles to the north east
Trang 34To challenge both assumptions Hasted (1797) gives an entirely different explanation of the name and maintains that antiquarians argued that the praetor Aulus Plautius was camped by the Ravensbourne source awaiting the arrival of Emperor Claudius in AD46 when the ravens appeared. The connection with Caesar has, however, firmly attached itself to stories about the river ever since.
There were imperial connections at the other end of the river in Deptford too. By the late
19th century Deptford had become a notoriously tough place to roam, navvies,
shipwrights’ mates and quayhands lived and frequented the ale houses around Deptford Bridge while ships’ officer classes made off to gentrified Greenwich, however in earlier days Deptford had seen its fair share of pomp and pageantry
Henry V alighted at Deptford Creek and was welcomed back after Agincourt in 1415 by magistrates and ‘chief citizens’ on Blackheath. In 1474 Edward VII was also welcomed back from France after alighting at Deptford. Anne of Cleves was met in 1540 by her
‘unwieldy lover’ Henry VIII, who had founded the Royal Dockyard at Deptford, as the
Trang 35Foreign Cattle Market, bearing the following inscription:—"Here worked as a ship
carpenter Peter, Czar of all the Russias, afterwards Peter the Great, 1698." The Czar's sojourn here is likewise commemorated by his name being given to a street in Deptford—
a very wretched and woebegone street, by the way, and quite unworthy of so illustrious a name. (Walford 1878, pgs 143164).
Crossing the river Ravensbourne was not a trivial task in the past and traffic was funnelledover the bridge at Deptford creek. The bottleneck at Deptford Bridge, on the road from Kent to the city, has proved a strategic point of defence for London and over time has seenthree major rebellions. The first of which was the Poll tax revolt in 1381, when Wat Tyler,the radical priest John Ball and Jack Straw led 60,000 people down from Blackheath Hill (later ‘Wat Tyler’s Mound’), above the Ravensbourne/Quaggy confluence and across the bridge at Deptford Broadway and up the Old Kent Road into London in 1381. Jack Cade set off in the same direction in 1450 as leader of the Kentish peasants, protesting against what they saw as the weak leadership of King Henry VI, unfair taxes, corruption and the loss of France (Baxter 1930). Finally in 1497 the troops of Henry VII, under Lord
Daubeny engaged the Cornish Rebels (who had come to London to protest against the tax levied to defray the cost of the war against the Scots) at Deptford Bridge. It is said 2,000 Cornishmen were killed and buried on the heath, 1,500 more were taken prisoner (Barton 1962). Of the Ravensbourne, Ackroyd states in ‘Thames: The sacred river’ (2007, 48):
‘No other tributary of the Thames has such a history of insurrection and bloodshed’. Indeed Charles Mackay (1878) observed:
Trang 364.3 Holy wells, springs and spiritual healing
If the journey of the river Ravensbourne ends in martial fashion in the naval dockyards it begins in more peaceful waters. Veronica Strang (2004, p85) claims that:
‘The concept of water as a ‘sacred substance’ is ubiquitous in religious
history: cultures located on alluvial plains made sacrifices and
Trang 37libations, holy ablutions, fertility rites. For blessing and protection
from the ‘evil eye’ and for mortuary rituals’.
This is as true of this river as of many others. The history of oppression and conflict within the Ravensbourne catchment has been contrasted by the times of reflection and healing, most notably during the times of the Englightenment when natural resources wereseen as God’s gift and presented an opportunity to those engrossed in capital gain during the Industrial Revolution to cleansethemselves.
Fig 13 Holwood
The Ravensbourne is associated with many holy springs and wells (Fig 13). According to Walters (1930, p2) three miles north of Keston’s ‘Temple’ above Caesar’s Well there rises
at Bromley a ‘firstclass holy well complete with saint’. The journey from Keston to Bromley saw the evolution of the Ravensbourne from a centre for Roman militarism to a
‘hotbed’ of medieval Roman Catholicism (Walters p2) at St Blaise’s (or St Blaize’s) Well, St Blaise being the Armenian patron saint of wool carders. (Walters refers to Hope p82 and Arch. Cant XIII p155) At St Blaise’s there was a shrine to which pilgrims were attracted by the promise of a papal indulgence to those who worshipped there around Whit
The area of the river’s source, according to Walters (1930) is also known as ‘Novio Magnus’, or ‘The Temple’ and ‘Burial Ground’ suggesting a more spiritual history and connections to healing. Barton (1962) states that Robert Burrow celebrated the healing properties at the source, which he named ‘The Bath’, and built steps running down to the water in 1831. However, the English Heritage Register of Parks (2008) records that
by 1784 John Randall, the eminent ship builder, had purchased the Holwood estate, which now covered 82.5 hectares, from Burrow (and a year later sold it on to Pitt). Randall has the distinction of living at the source and working at the mouth of the river since he conducted business, as Randall & Brent, at the confluence of the
Ravensbourne and the Thames at Deptford Creek. In 1760 he rented both the South Shipyard and the Greenland Dock in Rotherhithe where he built war ships for the
Admiralty. The 48gun frigate HMS Endymion had its keel laid in Rotherhithe before being towed to the Royal Dockyard, at Deptford Creek, for fittingout and
commissioning (Southwark Council 2004)
Trang 38‘orizons’ on the three holidays of the Pentecost (quoting Philipot p84). Hasted (p93) noted: ‘There is a spring in the Archbishop’s (of Rochester) ground called St Blaize’s Well which has historical importance on account of its medicinal virtues, and an oratory built nearby dedicated to the above mentioned saint’. The oratory was ruined at the
Reformation and the well disused. The water of the spring, when reopened in 1754, ‘werefound a good chalybeate’ with a gravel soil. The well, situated close to Widmore Road, became popular as a spa destination and proved a great asset to Bromley, however, the popularity of the spa declined as that of Tunbridge Wells increased and the well fell into disrepair by the mid 19th century (Williams B, 1998)
Clinch (1889 p129) in ‘Antiquarian Jottings’ notes a spring of water by the roadside near the ornamental ponds in the grounds of Hayes Place, known locally as Jacob’s Well. Workwas carried out on this well in promoting its healing properties by Mr Jacob Angus c1800
In Beckenham Lane a well known as Pin Well is situated. The tradition here is that ‘if a pin is dropped in the well and then water taken out, sore eyes wetted wherewith a cure willtake place’ (H J Dunkin 1855 p114). Like Pin Well, Lady Well near the auspicious
confluence of the Ravensbourne and the Pool was also ‘good for the eyes’. Hasted’s Hundred of Blackheath 1886 (p252) describes it as follows: ‘In 1472 a great spring broke out of the earth in this parish. There is also a sketch of this Lady Well in ‘Knight’s
Journey through Kent’ 1842’. (Antiquary XII 568).
4.4 Industrial history
Trang 39of great importance in commercial terms. The Domesday Book noted eleven mills in the Greenwich/Lewisham area. By 1745, as demonstrated in Rocque’s map, the catchment supported a variety of industry tied to production by water power. From Deptford Creek, where there was stowage, wharfage and warehousing, successive upstream mills were in action; Tide (corn) Mill, Water (pumping) Mill, Armoury Mill, Corn Mill and Leather Mill. The ready transport of raw materials (grain, leather) along the Thames and along the established road network added significant importance to the area as a transport hub from Kent and Surrey and as armoury route from the mill in Deptford to the Royal Armoury in Woolwich.
From the source the Ravensbourne fed into Pad Mill at Hayes Common, just south of Keston village before journeying on to the specialist glass mill at Bromley (this mill at various times has been adapted to produce paper, blanket, corn and felt) (English 1992).
At Southend, south of Bellingham, the ornamental ‘Peter Pan’s Pool’ (Fig 14), (now at Sainsbury’s Home Base), was formed from the former Cutlers Mill, home of the
celebrated cutlers John and Ephraim How (Baxter 1930).
Fig 14 Peter Pan’s Pool c1960 (Frith 2010)