Effects of long term use of sodic water irrigation, amendments and crop residues on soil properties and crop yields in rice–wheat cropping system in a calcareous soil

Bureshb a Department of Soils, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India b Crops and Soil Science Division, International Rice Research Institute, Los Ba ˇnos, Philippines

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Field Crops Research

j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w e l s e v i e r c o m / l o c a t e / f c r

Effects of long-term use of sodic water irrigation, amendments and crop residues

on soil properties and crop yields in rice–wheat cropping system in a calcareous soil

O.P Choudharya,∗, B.S Ghumana, Bijay-Singha, N Thuyb, R.J Bureshb

a Department of Soils, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana 141 004, India

b Crops and Soil Science Division, International Rice Research Institute, Los Ba ˇnos, Philippines

Article history:

Received 6 December 2010

Accepted 2 January 2011

Keywords:

Residual sodium carbonate

pH

Exchangeable sodium percentage

Bulk density

Infiltration rate

Organic manures

Wheat straw

Gypsum

a b s t r a c t

One of the options to ameliorate the deleterious effects of sodic water irrigation is to apply gypsum

to soil We examined whether the application of organic manures or crop residue can reduce the need for gypsum in calcareous soils A long-term field experiment with annual rice–wheat cropping rotation was conducted for 15 years (1991–2006) on a non-saline calcareous sandy loam soil (Typic Ustochrept)

in northwestern, India The irrigation water treatments included good quality canal water (CW) and sodic water (SW) with residual sodium carbonate (RSC) of 10 mmolcL−1 from 1991 to 1999 and of 12.5 mmolcL−1from 2000 onwards Gypsum was applied at 0, 12.5, 25, and 50% of the gypsum require-ment (GR), to neutralize RSC of the SW Three organic material treatrequire-ments consisted of application of farmyard manure (FYM) at 20 Mg ha−1, Sesbania green manure (GM) at 20 Mg ha−1, and wheat straw (WS) at 6 Mg ha−1 The organic materials were applied every year to the rice crop Continuous irrigation with sodic water for 15 years without gypsum or organic materials resulted in a gradual increase in soil

pH and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP), deterioration of soil physical properties, and decrease

in yields of both rice and wheat The cumulative yield loss in SW irrigated plots without gypsum and organic materials remained <1.5 Mg ha−1for up to eight years in the case of rice and up to nine years

in the case of wheat Thereafter, marked increase in pH and ESP resulted in further depression in yields

of rice by 1.6 Mg ha−1year−1and wheat by 1.2 Mg ha−1year−1 Application of gypsum improved physical and chemical properties of the soil The beneficial effects on crop yields were visible up to 12.5% GR in rice and up to 50% GR in wheat in most of the years All the organic materials proved effective in mobilizing

Ca2+from inherent and precipitated CaCO3resulting in decline in soil pH and ESP, increase in infiltration rate, and a increase in the yields of rice and wheat crops Although the application of organic materials resulted in comparable reductions in pH and ESP, the increase in yield with SW was higher for both crops with FYM Pooled over the last six years (2000–2006), application of FYM resulted in 38 and 26% increase

in rice and wheat yields, respectively, over SW treatment; corresponding increases in 50% GR treatment (recommended level) was 18 and 19% During these years, application of GM and WS increased wheat yields by 20%; for rice, GM resulted in 22% increase compared to 17% in WS amended SW irrigated plots Combined application of gypsum and organic materials did not increase the yields further particularly

in the case of FYM and GM treated plots This long-term study proves that organic materials alone can

be used to solubilize Ca from inherent and precipitated CaCO3in calcareous soils for achieving sustain-able yields in sodic water irrigated rice–wheat grown in annual rotation The results can help reduce the dependency on gypsum in sodic water irrigated calcareous soils

∗ Corresponding author at: Soil Salinity Laboratory, Department of Soils, PAU,

Ludhiana, India Tel.: +91 161 2401960/317/2771896; fax: +91 161 2409257.

E-mail address: opc 2k@yahoo.com (O.P Choudhary).

1 Introduction Groundwater surveys indicate that the poor quality waters being utilized for irrigation purposes in different states of India range between 32 and 84% of the total groundwater develop-ment (Minhas and Gupta, 1992; Choudhary, 2003) The problem

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O.P Choudhary et al / Field Crops Research 121 (2011) 363–372 (Minhas and Bajwa, 2001) Sodic groundwater with high residual

alkalinity exist in semi-arid regions (annual rainfall 500–700 mm)

whereas saline waters are generally concentrated in arid parts

(annual rainfall 330–350 mm) (Sharma and Minhas, 2005)

Rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown in an

annual rotation constitute a popular and profitable cropping

sys-tem for the farmers of the Indo-Gangetic Plains in South-Asia It

occupies about 9.8 million hectares area in this region (Bijay-Singh

et al., 2008; Yadvinder-Singh et al., 2004) and is also followed on a

sizable area having sodic groundwater (Sharma et al., 2001)

Irriga-tion with sodic waters high in carbonates and bicarbonates leads to

increase in soil pH and sodium (Na) saturation of soils, aeration and

permeability problems due to clay dispersion, crusting, and clay

migration leading to clogging of pores (Grattan and Oster, 2003;

Levy et al., 2003; Oster, 2004) thereby adversely affecting crop

pro-ductivity (Josan et al., 1998; Choudhary et al., 2004, 2006b; Sharma

and Minhas, 2005; Minhas et al., 2007a,b) Even under monsoonal

climate, characterized by rainfall concentrated in a short time span,

a quasi-stable salt balance is reached within 4–5 years of sustained

sodic water irrigation, while a further rise in pH and exchangeable

sodium percentage (ESP) is very low (Tyagi, 2003) This is

gener-ally true for soils having no or low calcium carbonate content but

what occurs in calcareous soils irrigated with sodic waters high

in residual alkalinity has not been studied adequately under field

conditions

Amelioration of sodic and sodic-water irrigated soils needs

gyp-sum as a source of calcium (Ca2+) that replaces the excess Na+from

the exchange complex and makes the root zone soil congenial for

absorption of water and nutrients by crop plants (Qadir et al., 2007)

Calcareous soils contain calcite (CaCO3) as source of Ca2+ Owing to

its extremely low solubility, however, calcite does not contribute

significantly to supply adequate levels of Ca2+needed for soil

ame-lioration as do the chemical amendments such as gypsum Thus, if

solubilization of Ca2+from CaCO3present in soil can be induced,

dependence on chemical amendments like gypsum can be

sub-stantially reduced In addition, chemical amendment application

and subsequently the drainage with high electrolyte

concentra-tion may also bring adverse effects on environmental protecconcentra-tion

(Qadir and Oster, 2004; Qadir et al., 2006) According toBower and

Goertzen (1958), availability of soil-CaCO3should be adequate for

amelioration of the sodic soils

Application of organic materials leads to increase in

concen-trations of soil atmospheric CO2and production of organic acids,

which in turn, results in increased solubility of CaCO3and other

calcic minerals (Minhas et al., 1995; Choudhary et al., 2006a; Li

and Keren, 2009).Sekhon and Bajwa (1993), in a pot experiment,

reported that incorporation of farmyard manure (FYM), Sesbania

aculeata green manure (GM) or rice straw in a soil irrigated with

sodic water decreased the precipitation of CaCO3, increased Na in

drainage waters, decreased soil pH and ESP and improved crop

yields In fact, the use of organic materials, particularly FYM, has

long been advocated as an organic amendment for the reclamation

of sodic soils (Rao, 1998) Since soils irrigated with sodic waters

generally are poor in organic matter, have very low soil fertility

and poor physical properties (Bajwa et al., 1998; Choudhary, 2003),

organic materials apart from the ameliorative action can help in

restoring soil quality of these degraded soils through

improve-ment in organic matter status, physical conditions of the soil and

increased nutrient availability (Choudhary et al., 2010)

In a column study, Jalali and Ranjbar (2009) demonstrated

that application of organic manures (sheep and poultry manures)

decreased soil sodicity produced due to application of sodic water

The organic manures resulted in greater adsorption of Ca2+, Mg2+

and K+than Na+ leading to lower soil ESP.Murtaza et al (2009)

observed that application of gypsum and FYM under irrigation

with saline-sodic water having no residual alkalinity successfully

Table 1 Composition of irrigation waters.

Electrical conductivity, EC (dS m −1 ) 0.52 1.65 2.11 Soluble salts (mmol c L −1 )

Residual sodium carbonate, RSC c 0.0 9.96 12.50 Sodium adsorption ratio, SAR d 1.85 9.40 10.61

a SW, composition of sodic water used from 1991–1999.

b SW, composition of sodic water used from 2000 onwards.

c RSC = (CO 3 2− +HCO 3−) − (Ca 2+ +Mg 2+ ) (all cations and anions in mmol c L −1 ).

d SAR = Na + /√(Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ )/2.

reclaimed a native saline-sodic soil Working with a sodic soil, Yaduvanshi and Sharma (2008)observed no significant change in soil properties under sodic water irrigation but reported benefits of residual effects of amendments on yields of wheat WhileMurtaza

et al (2009)used good quality water in conjunction with saline-sodic water,Yaduvanshi and Sharma (2008)focused on the tillage effects (no tillage vs conventional tillage) and did not have good quality water irrigation treatment for comparing results obtained with sodic water Moreover, both these studies were short-term (2–3 years) In a long-term investigation on sugarcane in a non-calcareous soil,Choudhary et al (2004)observed complimentary effects of applying FYM with gypsum under sodic water irrigation However, dissolution of CaCO3through addition of organic mate-rials as a practical means to reduce the need for applying gypsum

to reclaim a calcareous soil sodified due to irrigation with sodic waters needs to be studied on a long-term basis We, therefore, car-ried out a long-term field investigation to study the effect of sodic water irrigation on salt and Na build-up in the soil, and how organic amendments (FYM and GM) and crop residue incorporation vis-à-vis gypsum can lead to improvement in soil properties and crop productivity under rice–wheat cropping system in a calcareous soil

2 Materials and methods The field experiment with annual rice–wheat cropping rota-tion was conducted from 1991 through 2006 on a sandy loam soil (Typic Ustochrept) at Ludhiana (30◦56′N, 75◦52′E, 247 m above msl)

in northwestern India The 0–180 cm soil profile initially had pH varying between 7.9 and 8.5, electrical conductivity (EC) between 0.22 and 0.27 dS m−1, organic C between 3.0 and 3.5 g kg−1, CaCO3 between 28 and 44 g kg−1and ESP between 3.4 and 4.5% The clay content (18 to 26%) and CEC (7.6 to 15.0 cmol(+) kg−1) increased with soil depth The soil at the experimental site was well drained with a water table always remaining below 10 m

The 60 plots each measuring 1.5 m × 2 m were separated from one another by polythene sheet to a depth of 1 m to check lat-eral salt and water movement Rice (cv PR 106, PR 114, PR 118) and wheat (cv HD 2329, PBW 343) were grown in a rotation on fixed plots with different irrigation water, gypsum and organic amendment treatments The irrigation treatments consisted of good quality canal water (CW) and sodic water (SW) with resid-ual sodium carbonate (RSC) of 10 mmolcL−1 from 1991 to 1999 and of 12.5 mmolcL−1 from 2000 onwards Sodic waters high in bicarbonates and SAR used in the study were synthesized for each plot separately by dissolving a known quantity of NaHCO3in good quality water (0.84 g and 1.05 g of commercial grade NaHCO3for RSC of 10 and 12.5 mmolcL−1, respectively) (Table 1) in the 180 L

of CW in large steel drums (marked for requisite volume) before each irrigation The synthesized water was conveyed to the plots through a rubber hose pipe (6 cm diameter) Gypsum was applied

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O.P Choudhary et al / Field Crops Research 121 (2011) 363–372

0

50

100

150

200

250

Number of days

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Mean rain

Mean evap

Fig 1 Average daily rainfall and evaporation during 1991 to 2006.

to both rice and wheat crops at 4 levels viz 0, 12.5, 25, and 50% of

the gypsum requirement (GR) defined as quantity of gypsum to be

applied to neutralize RSC of SW Three organic materials used were

farmyard manure (FYM) applied at 20 Mg ha−1, Sesbania aculaeta

GM at 20 Mg ha−1, and wheat straw (WS) at 6 Mg ha−1 While GM

(70–80% moisture) and FYM (23–32% moisture) were applied on

fresh weight basis, WS was applied on dry weight basis The N

con-tents of GM, FYM and WS on dry weight basis during fifteen years

ranged between 2.0–2.5%, 0.8–1.2% and 0.4–0.6%, respectively The

experiment consisted of 20 treatments each replicated three times

laid out in a split plot design with organic materials applied each

year to rice in the main plots with the irrigation water and gypsum

treatments in the sub plots

Wheat was grown during November to April and rice during

mid-June to October The fertilizer N was applied at 150 kg N ha−1

as urea to rice in three split doses of 50 kg at 0, 21 and 42 days

after transplanting and to wheat in two equal split doses of 75 kg

at 0 and 28 days after sowing Both rice and wheat received a

basal application of 26 kg P and 50 kg K ha−1through di-ammonium

phosphate and muriate of potash, respectively Zinc sulphate (hepta

hydrate) was applied at 62 kg ha−1once in four years to rice crop

All other agronomic practices followed were as per Punjab

Agri-cultural University Package of Practices for growing rice and wheat

crops (Anonymous, 1991–2000a,b)

Each irrigation consisted of 60 mm water that was applied after

same amount of water had evaporated as measured from the U.S

Class A open pan evaporimeter Adjustment in the depth of

irriga-tion water was made for the rainfall received during the interval

between two irrigations Depending upon the amount and

distri-bution of rainfall received the number of irrigations given to rice

and wheat in different years varied from 13 to 42 and 2 to 5,

respec-tively The maximum number of irrigations (42) was applied to rice

in the year 2004 and the minimum (13) in 1998

The average weekly rainfall and class A open pan evaporation

from 1990–1991 to 2004–2005 are shown inFig 1 More than 70%

of the total rainfall was received in the monsoon season from July

to September when the rainfall exceeded evaporation Maximum

evaporation occurred during May and June

Soil samples were taken with an auger (4 cm diameter) from

0–15 and 15–30 cm depth in the third week of April every

year Soil samples were also collected from 30–45 and 45–60 cm

depth after harvesting wheat in April, 2006 The soil samples

were air-dried, ground to pass through a 2-mm sieve The soil

and irrigation water samples were analyzed for EC, pH, soluble

and exchangeable cations and ESP following standard methods

(Richards, 1954) The amount of organic carbon in the soil was

estimated by dichromate digestion method (Walkley and Black,

1934) The infiltration rate and bulk density was measured after

8 8.5 9 9.5 10

Year

CW SW SW+12.5GR SW+25GR SW+50GR

8 8.5 9 9.5 10

Year

SW SW+FYM SW+GM SW+WS

Fig 2 Soil pH (0–30 cm) as influenced by (a) gypsum and (b) organic amendments under sodic water irrigation (CW is canal water; SW is sodic water; GR is gypsum requirement; FYM is farmyard manure; GM is green manure; WS is wheat straw).

wheat 2005–2006 season by double ring infiltrometer (Bouwer,

1986) and by core method (Blake and Hartage, 1986), respec-tively

The experiment was carried out in a split plot design (Gomez and Gomez, 1990) The data from the field experiment were sta-tistically analyzed following analysis of variance (ANOVA) using IRRISTAT 5.0 The least significant difference (LSD) test was applied

to evaluate the significance of the differences between the treat-ment means

3 Results and discussion 3.1 Temporal changes in soil properties Continued irrigation with SW without addition of gypsum or organic materials resulted in the increase in soil pH as compared to irrigation with CW The increase in pH was progressive (Fig 2a) Soil

pH (0–30 cm) increased from 8.25 in 1991 to 9.30 in 1996 and then more or less stabilized around 9.15 up to 2000 Thereafter upon increase of residual alkalinity of SW from 10 to 12.5 mmolcL−1, the soil pH increased sharply to 9.47 in 2003 and 9.92 in 2006 Application of gypsum resulted in decreased soil pH; the effect was statistically significant after two years Over the years, soil pH decreased in response to the amount of gypsum applied; maxi-mum decline was observed when gypsum was applied at 50% GR (Fig 2a)

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0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Year

CW

SW

SW+12.5GR

SW+25GR

SW+50GR

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Year

SW SW+FYM SW+GM SW+WS

Fig 3 Soil ESP (0–30 cm) as influenced by (a) gypsum and (b) organic amendments

under sodic water irrigation (CW is canal water; SW is sodic water; GR is gypsum

requirement; FYM is farmyard manure; GM is green manure; WS is wheat straw).

Organic amendments applied to SW irrigated plots resulted in

decreasing soil pH with time (Fig 2b) Among the organic

amend-ments, FYM was the most effective in decreasing soil pH followed

by GM and WS during most of the years The magnitude of decline in

soil pH due to application of organic amendments increased after

1996 Maximum drop of 0.5 units in soil pH was observed in the

year 2000 There was a sharp rise in soil pH in the un-amended SW

treatment after 2000 Although all the organic amendments

regis-tered increase in soil pH after 2000, the values were substantially

lower compared to the un-amended SW treatments An increase in

soil pH after 2000 can be ascribed to increase in residual alkalinity

of SW from 10 to 12.5 mmolcL−1

Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of the soil (0–30 cm)

irri-gated with SW increased gradually with time (Fig 3a) Soil ESP

increased from 4.2 in 1991 to 18.9 in 1996 and further to 39.2 in

2000 After 2000, it increased to 42 in 2003 and to 54.1 in 2006

Minhas et al (2007a)observed that in the rice–wheat cropping

system, an increase in ESP of the soil irrigated with high RSC sodic

waters was fast during initial 2–3 years and then it nearly stabilized

According toTyagi (2003), a quasi-stable salt balance is reached

within 4–5 years of sustained sodic water irrigation under

mon-soonal climate and further rise in pH and ESP of the soil is very

slow Several other studies involving irrigation of rice, wheat as

well as other crops with high RSC waters (Bajwa et al., 1992; Minhas

and Bajwa, 2001; Choudhary et al., 2004; Choudhary et al., 2006b;

Choudhary and Ghuman, 2008) also showed sharp increase in soil

ESP in the initial years and stabilizing later on The marked differ-ence in the pattern of increase in pH and ESP of these investigators and that observed in present investigation is attributed to the fact that the soil in the present investigation was calcareous soil (4% free CaCO3) On the other hand, investigations ofMinhas et al (2007a) and several others were conducted largely on non-calcareous soils (<1% CaCO3) Calcareous nature of the soil in the present investiga-tion should be the reason for relatively lesser increase in soil pH and ESP values when irrigated with SW in sharp contrast to the obser-vation of several workers who worked with non-calcareous soils The build-up of sodicity in soils due to irrigation with waters hav-ing high residual alkalinity has been observed to be the outcome

of equilibrium between the processes of precipitation of calcite and other minerals on concentration of soil solution with water uptake during irrigation season and rainfall induces release of diva-lent cations both from exchange sites and dissolution of calcite and other minerals Sodicity build-up in the present investigation due to irrigation with sodic water took longer time compared to other studies (Bajwa et al., 1992; Choudhary et al., 2004, 2006b; Minhas et al., 2007a) as Na saturation of the soil was retarded due

to higher amounts of Ca carbonate present in the soil Furthermore, the present study was of much longer duration and RSCiw was elevated to 12.5 mmolcL−1after nine years unlike in many earlier studies.Minhas and Gupta (1992)observed that quasi-stable equi-librium established in the soil irrigated with sodic water depended upon soil characteristics, nature of crops grown, and the climate Application of gypsum resulted in decline of soil ESP in the 0–30 cm layer (Fig 3a) Similar effect on ESP by applying different rates of gypsum to SW irrigated plots was observed in the initial

5 years (up to 1996) In 1996, soil ESP under SW treatment was

23 and it decreased to about 14–16 when gypsum at different rates was applied in SW-irrigated plots Thereafter, ESP of the soil started declining in proportion to the amount of gypsum applied Relative

to soil ESP values of 33, 45 and 54 under SW treatment in 2000, 2003 and 2006, respectively, corresponding ESP values in plots receiving gypsum at the rate of 12.5, 25 and 50% GR were 30, 37 and 47; 26,

33 and 47, and 23, 29 and 38, respectively

Compared to the unamended SW treatment, application of organic amendments resulted in decrease of ESP in 0–30 cm soil layer by 4 to13 in different years; the maximum decline was observed in 2000 (Fig 3b) In the later years, ESP of the soil was most effectively reduced by addition of FYM compared to WS and

GM These organic amendments are known to produce organic acids upon decomposition that facilitated solubilization of native CaCO3 to bring Ca in the soil solution to ameliorate the harmful effects of SW irrigation In non-calcareous soils where calcite is not present, amelioration is generally accomplished by the appli-cation of external source of Ca such as gypsum.Lal et al (2008) concluded that CaCO3was one of the major sources that released

Ca and bicarbonate ions in the solution when high SAR waters are applied They also reported that using high SAR and low electrolyte but non-RSC irrigation water in alkali soils rich in Ca+Mg bearing minerals like feldspars and CaCO3could maintain proportionately higher (Ca+Mg)/Na ratio in the soil solution than in the applied irri-gation water Calcium ions might also be produced from dissolution

of silicate minerals (plagioclase feldspars) or CaCO3of metastable form, which was more soluble than pure silicate minerals present

in the soil (Curtin et al., 1995) The present investigation is per-haps the first to show that even on a long-term basis the release of

Ca from CaCO3and other Ca bearing minerals in soil achieved with the application of organic amendments can reduce sodicity hazards owing to irrigation with high RSC waters

In non-calcareous saline-sodic and sodic soils, an increase in aqueous CO2results in production of H+ions and a corresponding decrease in soil pH In calcareous saline-sodic and sodic soils, pH usually does not descend to a greater extent (Nelson and Oades,

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O.P Choudhary et al / Field Crops Research 121 (2011) 363–372 Table 2

Soil electrical conductivity (EC, 0–15 cm soil) as influenced by sodic water irrigation

and application of different levels of gypsum and organic amendments.

CW is canal water; SW is sodic water; GR is gypsum requirement; FYM is farmyard

manure; GM is green manure; WS is wheat straw.

1998) due to neutralization of H+ions by the dissolution of calcite

as:

CaCO3+ H+↔ Ca2++ HCO3−

Plummer et al (1978)opined that CO2 concentration in soil

solution is the main factor controlling CaCO3dissolution Partial

pressure of CO2 (PCO2) increased not only due to application of

amendments and respiring roots, but also under anaerobic soil

con-ditions (Van der Berg and Loch, 2000) Higher irrigation input and

high rainfall during monsoon season (rice growing season) can help

create periodic anaerobic conditions and thus partly contributed

to develop high PCO2 that further reduced ESP and SARe of the soil

in the rice based cropping systems (Qadir et al., 2001) Thus, in

the present study, lower sodicity levels were maintained over the

years in the organically amended compared with the un-amended

SW plots

Electrical conductivity of the soil was significantly affected by

SW irrigation and gypsum application EC values ranged between

0.20 and 0.33 dS m−1under CW and between 0.24 and 0.60 dS m−1

under SW treatment in different years (Table 2) Increases in EC

values were recorded when gypsum was applied Maximum value

of 0.81 dS m−1was observed with gypsum application at 50% of GR

after two years in 1993; generally lower values were observed in

the later years This level of EC (0.8 dS m−1) separates a saline soil

from non-saline soil in many soil testing laboratories of northern

India and is considered to be equivalent to ECe value of 4 dS m−1,

usually employed to characterize saline soils (Gupta and Abrol,

1990; Bajwa and Swarup, 2009) However, application of organic

amendments under SW did not influence EC values greatly When

both organic amendments and gypsum application at 50% GR were

applied in SW irrigated plots (data for different years not

pre-sented), relatively higher EC values were observed Increase in

salinity can impact yields of rice as it is more sensitive to salinity

than wheat (Ayers and Westcot, 1985)

3.2 Soil properties after 15 years

3.2.1 Chemical properties

Long-term irrigation with SW for 15 years significantly

increased the soil pH (Table 3) The maximum pH (10.0) was

recorded in 0–15 cm layer in the un-amended SW irrigated plots

Application of gypsum at 12.5% GR significantly reduced mean

soil pH compared to that in SW Further significant reduction

in mean soil pH due to application of gypsum was observed at

50% GR Among organic amendments, application of FYM and GM

significantly reduced the mean soil pH as compared to control

Application of organic amendments in SW treatment significantly

reduced soil pH in case of FYM (0.42 units) and GM (0.26 units)

Sig-nificant decline in soil pH due to combined application of gypsum

and organic amendments was observed in GM and WS treatments

receiving 25% GR, although minimum soil pH at this level was

Table 3 Effect of sodic water irrigation, gypsum and organic amendments on soil pH (1:2 soil:water) in 2006 (after 15 years).

Irrigation treatment Organic amendments

0–15 cm

LSD (p = 0.05) Irrigation treatments = 0.12, amendments = 0.10;

interaction = 0.20 15–30 cm

LSD (p = 0.05) Irrigation treatments = 0.10, amendments = NS;

interaction = NS

CW is canal water; SW is sodic water; GR is gypsum requirement; FYM is farmyard manure; GM is green manure; WS is wheat straw.

recorded in FYM amended plots (9.44) At 50% GR, minimum soil

pH (9.30) was also observed in FYM treatment; it was significantly lower than in the un-amended and WS treatments but at par with

GM treatment In 15–30 and 30–60 cm soil layers, the magnitude

of increase in soil pH compared to that in the CW treatment was relatively lower but the trend in change in soil pH in different treat-ments was similar to that observed in the surface layer It can be ascribed to deterioration in soil structure of the top layer due to SW irrigation which resulted in lower percolation to sub soil layers Sta-tistically significant effect of applying gypsum was observed up to 25% GR in 15–30 cm and up to only 12.5% in 30–60 cm soil layers

In 0–15 cm layer, mean electrical conductivity of the saturated extract (ECe) was more than doubled from 0.84 dS m−1under CW to 1.77 dS m−1under SW irrigation (Table 4) Further increase in mean ECe was observed upon application of gypsum at 25% (2.20 dS m−1)

or 50% GR (2.59 dS m−1) in plots receiving SW irrigations All organic amendments reduced mean ECe values by 0.16–0.24 dS m−1.Maas (1990) reported that rice yields decrease by 12% for every unit (dS m−1) increase in ECe above 3.0 dS m−1 However,Grattan et al (2002)found rice to be more sensitive to salinity (1.9 dS m−1) than the threshold level of 3.0 dS m−1 Higher salinity in SW treatments receiving gypsum at 25 and 50% GR in the present investigation may impact rice yields Substantially lower ECe values in all the treatments were observed in the 15–30 cm layer and still lower in the 30–60 cm layer

Irrigation with SW resulted in considerable increase in soil Na saturation and, thus, increased mean ESP in the 0–15 cm soil layer

by more than 13 to 14 times compared to CW irrigation after 15 years (Table 5) Application of increasing amounts of gypsum in the presence and the absence of organic amendments progressively reduced ESP Although all the three amendments were effective under SW treatment in the absence of gypsum, minimum ESP was observed in the FYM treatment Significant decrease due to

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Effect of sodic water irrigation, gypsum and organic amendments on electrical

con-ductivity of the saturation extract (ECe) (dS m −1 ) in 2006 (after 15 years).

0–15 cm

interaction = NS 15-30 cm

interaction = NS 30–60 cm

LSD (p = 0.05) Irrigation treatments = 0.12, amendments = NS;

interaction = NS

Table 5

Effect of sodic water irrigation, gypsum and organic amendments on exchangeable

sodium percentage (ESP) in 2006 (after 15 years).

0–15 cm

LSD (p = 0.05) Irrigation treatments = 1.4; amendments = 1.2;

interaction = 2.1

Table 6 Effect of sodic water irrigation, gypsum and organic amendments on organic C (g kg −1 ) (0–15 cm) in 2006 (after 15 years).

interaction = 0.51

combined application of gypsum and organic amendments on ESP

of soil was observed in FYM and GM treatments at each level of gypsum addition Both these amendments were at par in influ-encing soil ESP Irrigation with SW increased the soil ESP values

in 15–30 cm soil layer by 8 to 11 times Pattern of decrease in ESP due to application of gypsum and organic amendments in this layer was similar to the surface layer Application of gyp-sum at 12.5% GR significantly decreased ESP from 49.6 to 41.1 in the un-amended SW treatment but in the organically amended treatments, the reduction was not significant Nevertheless gyp-sum applied at 50% GR resulted in significant reduction in soil ESP in both unamended and amended treatments over gypsum applied at 12.5% GR As expected, due to low leaching of salts and Na, lower ESP was observed under SW and in all other treat-ments in 30–60 cm soil compared to the upper layers Lower values for soil ESP were recorded in organically amended plots at each levels of gypsum application compared to the un-amended

SW treatment with the lowest values observed in FYM-amended plots

3.2.2 Organic C

As compared to CW-irrigated plots, significant decrease in organic C (by 15%) in plots under SW irrigation was observed after

15 years when these were not amended with gypsum or organic materials (Table 6) Application of gypsum resulted in significant increase in organic C only at 50% GR Organic amendments signif-icantly increased soil organic C over the un-amended treatments Mean organic C in the FYM treated plots increased by 78% over that

in the un-amended treatment The corresponding increase in the

GM and WS treated plots were 25 and 26%, respectively

In plots receiving organic amendments, SW irrigation signif-icantly decreased soil organic C under FYM and WS treatment Nevertheless, FYM treatment even under SW had significantly higher organic C values than under the un-amended CW irrigated (66%) plot; corresponding increase in GM and WS treatments was 14–15% It indicates that organic amendments can enhance the fer-tility of the soil through elevated levels of organic C apart from their role in ameliorating harmful effects of sodic water irrigation Also, it becomes evident that there exists a potential to sequester carbon in such sodic-water irrigated soils using organic amendments under rice–wheat system on a long-term basis Besides it will influence balance of nutrients by lowering soil pH as well as the excessive amounts of exchangeable Na, and favorably influencing transfor-mations of nutrients particularly N and micronutrients All these factors are likely to have a positive impact on crop yields in the organically amended plots

Gypsum applied at 50% GR resulted in significant increase in organic C over the un-amended SW treatment; all levels of gypsum were at par and similar to CW for organic C values Application of

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O.P Choudhary et al / Field Crops Research 121 (2011) 363–372 gypsum at 50% GR in the amended treatments resulted in

signifi-cant increase in organic C in FYM treatment over the respective SW

treatment Organic C values in the GM and WS treatments were at

par at all gypsum levels

The results from present investigation suggest that in

calcare-ous soils, the effects of organic amendments in reducing pH and ESP

were comparable with that of gypsum Organic amendments lead

to elevated PCO2 and production of organic acids that helps in

dis-solving native CaCO3(Robbins, 1986b; Qadir et al., 2007) The PCO

2

in soils may reach up to 1 kPa, i.e 1% of soil air by volume (Nelson

and Oades, 1998) and can increase to levels as high as 16 kPa under

cropped conditions (Robbins, 1986b) In a lysimeter experiment,

Robbins (1986a)found that in calcareous sodic soils crops

produc-ing the highest PCO2 were the ones with the greater Na+removal

efficiency In another lysimeter experiment, corn stalk application

increased CO2partial pressure, lowered leachate pH and improved

native CaCO3dissolution (Li and Keren, 2009).Nadler et al (1996)

found application of CO2enriched water to a calcareous sodic soil as

the most favorable treatments for amelioration For saline or sodic

soils, the addition of organic matter can accelerate the leaching of

Na+, decrease pH, ESP and EC and increase water infiltration,

water-holding capacity and aggregate stability (Lax et al., 1994; Qadir et

al., 2001) The solubilization of naturally present CaCO3and CaSO4

by the irrigation water can decrease SAR, together with

simultane-ous de-sodification due to leaching (Gupta and Abrol, 1990) Using

saline or saline-sodic waters containing low residual alkalinity (low

RSC), several studies (e.g.Robbins, 1986a; Qadir et al., 2001, 2007;

Murtaza et al., 2009) have demonstrated comparable performance

of phyto-remediation and organic amendments with application of

chemical amendments in saline-sodic soils Our results show that

such possibility may be extended to calcareous soils undergoing

sodification due to long-term use of sodic waters high in

resid-ual alkalinity In addition, incorporation of organic amendments

also favorably influenced soil fertility and utilization of applied

nutrients by considerably increasing organic C content of such

soils

3.2.3 Physical properties of soil

Due to long-term irrigation with SW, bulk density (BD)

of 0–7.5 cm and 7.5–15 cm soil layers increased by 0.14 and

0.11 g cm−3, respectively, when compared to CW irrigated plots

Application of gypsum at 12.5% GR significantly reduced BD in all

the amended treatments over their respective SW treated plots

In the unamended treatment, significant reduction in BD was

observed with the gypsum application at 25% GR in the surface

soil layer Increase in gypsum dose to 50% GR further reduced BD in

all the treatments Among the organic amendments, only FYM was

able to significantly reduce mean BD over the un-amended

treat-ment in the surface soil layer In the 7.5–15 cm soil layer, all the

organic amendments significantly reduced the mean BD

Irrespective of the amendments, final infiltration rate (FIR) of

soil was significantly reduced from 2.32 cm h−1 observed under

CW treatment to 0.4 cm h−1with long-term use of SW In the

un-amended treatment, application of gypsum at 50% GR significantly

increased FIR to 1.3 cm h−1from 0.4 cm h−1under SW treatment,

while gypsum at 12.5% GR was effective in significantly increasing

FIR in all the amended plots and FIR further improved significantly

with increased doses of gypsum All the organic amendments

sig-nificantly increased FIR over the un-amended plots Application

of gypsum along with organic amendments was more effective in

increasing FIR than when these were applied alone

3.3 Crop yields

Yields of rice and wheat as influenced by SW irrigation in

dif-ferent years are shown inFig 4 Decline in the yields of rice and

Wheat

y = 1.201x - 2401

R 2 = 0.99

Rice

y = 1.666x - 3329.4

R 2 = 0.97

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006

Year

-1 )

Fig 4 Cumulative yield loss in rice and wheat under sodic water irrigation relative

to canal water irrigation.

wheat due to SW irrigation in the initial years was small compared

to that observed after 2000 In the present study, Na build-up in the soil under the SW treatment did not greatly affect the crop yields in the initial 2 to7 years In several studies, sharp increase in soil pH and ESP due to irrigation with SW having high RSC in the initial 2 to 4 years resulted in significant reduction in crop yields (Minhas and Bajwa, 2001; Choudhary et al., 2004, 2006b; Minhas

et al., 2007a,b) In contrast, the cumulative yield loss in SW irri-gated plots not amended with gypsum and organic materials in the present study was <1.5 Mg ha−1in first eight years in rice and nine years in wheat Thereafter, greater depression in rice and wheat grain yield was observed under SW irrigation

Cumulative yield loss for both crops increased sharply from the year 2000 onwards Compared to in the CW irrigation treatment, rice and wheat yields decreased by 1.67 and 1.20 Mg ha−1year−1, respectively, under SW irrigation It should be due to a marked increase in pH and soil Na saturation when RSC of SW was increased from 10 to 12.5 mmolcL−1 from 2000 onwards In the present study, relatively greater reduction in rice yields compared to wheat yields is in contrast to the findings of the some earlier investi-gations on sodic soils reclaimed with gypsum (Gupta and Abrol,

1990) where the threshold sodicity (ESP) levels were higher for rice (24.4) than for wheat (16.4) The respective ESP values for 50% yield decline were 60 for rice and 40 for wheat Greater decrease

in yield of rice rather than wheat can be attributed to more sen-sitivity of rice to soil and water salinity than that of wheat (Ayers and Westcot, 1985) Therefore, in addition to increased soil pH and ESP, soil and water salinity further affected the yields of both the crops.Minhas et al (2007b)also reported greater reduction in rice yields compared to wheat when both crops were irrigated with sodic waters in place of good quality water According toSharma

et al (1993), the variations in yields in soils irrigated with sodic waters can not be explained solely in terms of the sodicity (ESP) build-up because the salinity stress simultaneously inhibits growth under these conditions Moreover, the ESP tolerance of crops in soils undergoing sodification with SW and alkali soils undergoing reclamation with gypsum is similar except for rice (Minhas et al., 2007b)

The data inTable 7shows the rice and wheat yields from 2000 onwards Compared to in the CW irrigation treatment, rice yields under SW irrigation for 2000, 2001and 2002 were 89, 92, and 87%, respectively These were further reduced to 67, 58 and 69% for 2003,

2004 and 2005, respectively Wheat yields under SW relative to under CW for 2000–2001 to 2005–2006 were 93, 91, 70, 71, 83 and 75%, respectively

Beneficial effects of gypsum application on crop yields under the un-amended plots were visible up to 12.5% GR in rice and up

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Effect of sodic water irrigation, gypsum and organic amendments on crop yields (Mg ha −1 ).

Rice

Wheat

CW is canal water, SW is sodic water, GR is gypsum requirement; FYM is farmyard manure; GM is green manure; WS is wheat straw; RY and SYI denote relative yield referenced to CW and sustainable yield index, respectively.

to 50% in wheat in most of the years (Fig 5,Table 8) High soil

salinity (ECe) at 50% GR treatment (>2.5 dS m−1,Table 4) might

have masked the beneficial effects of gypsum in case of rice

con-sidered to be sensitive to soil salinity (ECe 1.9 dS m−1) (Grattan

et al., 2002) Compared to rice, wheat yield were affected to a

lesser extent due to direct salinity stress at higher levels of gypsum

Rice

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Year

CW

SW

SW+12.5GR

SW+25GR

SW+50GR

Wheat

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Year

CW

SW

SW+12.5GR

SW+25GR

SW+50GR

Fig 5 Effect of gypsum levels on crop yields (CW is canal water; SW is sodic water;

because wheat is more tolerant to soil salinity (ECe 6 dS m−1) than rice (Ayers and Westcot, 1985).Ahmed et al (2006)reported that the post-amelioration soil ECe was observed to be more with 50%

GR than with no gypsum under rice–wheat cropping system It was attributed to the presence of residual gypsum dissolved to sustain high electrolyte concentration and continued replacement of Na+

from exchange sites into the soil solution Thus gypsum application

in a calcareous saline-sodic soil can be reduced leading to decreased salt load of leaching solution and cost of reclamation of such soils

Different organic materials were effective in mobilizing Ca2+

from inherent and precipitated CaCO3 resulting in decreased soil pH and ESP, increase in infiltration rate, and a significant increase in the yields of rice and wheat Although organic materi-als resulted in comparable reductions in pH and ESP over the years (Tables 3 and 5andFigs 2 and 3), yields of both the crops with SW were higher with FYM than with GM and WS High yields in FYM treated plots can be ascribed to marked improvement in organic

Table 8 Effect of SW irrigation, gypsum and organic amendments on crop yields (Mg ha −1 ) from 2000–2001 to 2005-–2006 (pooled data).

Rice

interaction = 0.72 Wheat

interaction = 0.64

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C content (6.38 compared to 3.27 g kg−1 in the un-amended SW

treatment) and availability of nutrients in addition to its

ameliora-tive action.Yaduvanshi and Sharma (2008)reported that organic

carbon improvement in a sodic soil due to application of gypsum

and FYM was associated with an increase in grain yield of wheat

Walker and Bernal (2004)observed that organic amendments can

improve the mineral nutrient status and growth of plants grown in

sodic soils.Qadir et al (2001)reported higher crop yields in plots

treated with manure rather than gypsum receiving 100 and 50% GR

in a saline-sodic soil

During 2000 to 2006, application of FYM improved the mean

rice and wheat grain yields by 37 and 26%, respectively, over

the un-amended SW treatment (Table 7) In comparison,

appli-cation of gypsum at 50% GR improved the mean grain yields of

rice and wheat by 18 and 19% Amending the soil with GM and

WS resulted in 20% increase in wheat grain yields over the

un-amended SW irrigated treatment Both these amendments were

at par with recommended levels of gypsum For rice, GM

appli-cation was better (22% increase) than gypsum (18% increase)

and WS (17%) application Sustainable yield index (SYI)

indicat-ing the minimum guaranteed yield as referenced to the maximum

observed yield (Ymax) with canal water (CW) was calculated as

SYI = (Y − S)/Ymaxwhere ‘Y’ is the average yield and ‘S’ is the

stan-dard deviation The SYI ranged from 0.532 to 0.891 in rice and from

0.599 to 0.839 in wheat (Table 7) Higher yield index for organic

amendments rather than gypsum in SW plots by 0.020–0.161

sug-gests higher sustainability in rice, particularly for FYM amended

plots Residual effects of the organic amendments were visible in

wheat and FYM treatment was the most sustainable compared

to recurring application of gypsum at the recommended level

in SW irrigated plots Pooled data for the last 6 years (Table 8)

revealed that the application of gypsum did not significantly

increase the yields further in plots amended with organic

mate-rials It was particularly true in the case of FYM and GM treated

plots

4 Conclusions

Continuous irrigation with SW can result in the gradual increase

in soil pH and ESP in calcareous soils Decline in crop yields due to

SW irrigation in the initial 5 to 7 years can be less pronounced

compared to later years Greater depression in grain yield can be

encountered in rice rather than in wheat Salinity stress in addition

to sodicity stress (high pH and ESP) is more evident in rice

Applica-tion of gypsum can improve physical and chemical soil properties

but its full benefits on crop yields can not be realized in calcareous

soils Organic materials can be effective in mobilizing Ca2+from

inherent and precipitated CaCO3resulting in improving soil

prop-erties, elevating organic C content, and increasing the yields of rice

and wheat crops Reduction in sodicity (pH and ESP) due to

appli-cation of FYM, GM and WS can be similar but due to additional

benefits, application of FYM can result in increase of >25% in rice

and wheat yields in SW irrigated soils over the un-amended ones;

yield benefits can be about 20% due to application of recommended

levels of gypsum (50% GR) Even application of GM and WS can

be as effective as gypsum application It suggests that in

calcare-ous soils, organic amendments can be more useful than gypsum in

ameliorating long-term sodic-water irrigation and sustaining the

productivity of rice–wheat system Application of gypsum in

organ-ically amended soils may not increase the yields of both rice and

wheat any further Organic materials alone can be used to release Ca

from inherent and precipitated CaCO3in calcareous soils for

achiev-ing sustainable yields in rice–wheat croppachiev-ing system under sodic

water irrigated conditions, thereby reducing the dependency on

gypsum

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Tiêu đề	Effects of Long Term Use of Sodic Water Irrigation, Amendments and Crop Residues on Soil Properties and Crop Yields in Rice–Wheat Cropping System in a Calcareous Soil
Tác giả	O.P. Choudhary, B.S. Ghuman, Bijay-Singh, N. Thuy, R.J. Buresh
Trường học	Punjab Agricultural University
Chuyên ngành	Soil Science, Agronomy
Thể loại	Research Article
Năm xuất bản	2011
Thành phố	Ludhiana

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