Reading the Bible and the Qur''an Together

Reading the Bible and the Qur'an TogetherHenry Martyn Seminar – February 15 th 2012 This seminar is a reflection on the implications of some contemporary insights which suggest commonali

Reading the Bible and the Qur'an Together

Henry Martyn Seminar – February 15 th 2012

This seminar is a reflection on the implications of some contemporary insights which suggest commonalities between the form of units of text in the Bible (the Hebrew Bible, or what I as a Christian know as the Old Testament, with the New Testament) and the Qur'an To my best knowledge that was not something which was of concern to Henry Martyn Where I have overlapping concerns with him, I think, is in the desire to create a means by which the interests of scripture-text can be made an accessible basis for informed dialogue between Muslims and Christians, and indeed Jews However, the commonality which I am taking as foundational is not Abraham

or other characters common to each of our traditions but, rather, the mode of presentation of ideas I think the best term for mode of presentation is 'rhetoric', but

to distinguish the mode which is common to the scriptures of Jews, Christians and Muslims from ideas of persuasive embellishment that draw on Greco-Roman definitions of 'rhetoric', for convenience I follow others in calling the mode 'semitic rhetoric'

Before I turn to illustrating what I mean, and through examples set out the implications of reading in the light of rhetorical form (which, as we shall see, is not the same as genre), let me briefly give context for my relatively recent engagement with the topic Like Henry Martyn I have engaged in Christian ministry in an Urdu speaking context: my days with the Bible Correspondence School give me some familiarity with ways in which the scriptures have tended to be used in inter-faith conversation in Pakistan I have never been to Iran, but have visited in the Gulf as well as living for a period in Cairo An important outcome of that time was a deeper familiarity with the Orthodox church, including the ways in which they engage with scripture For a while I also had some involvement with the Programme for Theological Education by Extension in the arabic-speaking world However, it was after I returned to the UK (to be supportive to my ageing mother) that I was drawn into reconsidering some of my conclusions about the interests and emphases in the Bible on the basis of the structure of texts Given the contexts in which I have lived and worked for much of my adult life it was natural to wonder if there was anything similar in the Qur'an I had originally expected not However, not only do my own explorations persuade me otherwise, but I have found that there are a small but growing number of scholars of the Qur'an, currently engaged in analysis and writing,

who are presenting evidence for coherency in the interests of large portions, or whole suras, on the basis of rhetorical structure

Henry Martyn was a man of his time Those of you who attended the first seminar in this series commemorating his life and work will have reflected on that fact This seminar is of our time in that it is dealing with insights that have been (re-) emerging

in the last forty years, and even more recently Let me summarize

a) A seminal moment in biblical studies was the address given to the Society of Biblical Literature in 1969 by James Muilenburg In this he stated (1989:8) that:

'What I am interested in, above all, is understanding the nature of Hebrew literary composition, exhibiting the structural patterns that are employed for the fashioning of a literary unit, whether in poetry or in prose, and in discerning the many and various devices by which the predictions are formulated and ordered into a unified whole Such an enterprise I should describe as rhetoric and the methodology as rhetorical

criticism.'

Particularly since that time it has become a commonplace in biblical scholarship for such rhetorical criticism to be a primary tool for interpreting scripture text Amongst important exponents are Phyllis Trible and Walter Brueggemann, who cite Muilenberg as their teacher (Trible, 1984:ix) I will be making reference to them later

b) Fresh observations are still being made and debated in New Testament

scholarship A particularly relevant work is Kenneth E Bailey's recent Jesus Through Middle Eastern Eyes: Cultural Studies in the Gospels (SPCK, 2008) He

insists that understanding of the biblical text is frequently distorted by being read with little awareness of the culture in which it came into being, and that a characteristic of that culture is discourse typified by repetitions, or what literary critics describe as parallelisms, inclusios, chiasms and ring structures

c) Meanwhile, detailed work identifying such structures in the Qur'an began to emerge from the 1980s, but especially since the turn of the millennium: Neal Robinson confesses to having become convinced that chiasmus is an important organizational principle, with implications for interpretation of qur'anic suras, between

writing the first (1996) and editing the second edition of Discovering the Qur'an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text (2003:xiii) A number of scholars working

in the area suggest that these are the rhetorical structures in the text which constitute

the naẓm that is core to the inimitable nature of the Qur'an (see especially

Abdul-Raof (2001) and Cuypers (2011))

I suggest that these common developments in the interpretation of our sacred texts should inform the conversations we have around their interests I have found that typically conversation about subject matter common to the Bible and the Qur'an has tended to deal in isolated units, and so fed the tendency for comparisons to comprise of an exchange of traditional interpretation and exegetical lore, which is certainly a valid inter-faith activity, but one which leaves questions of congruence between the interests of the texts unresolved The alternative which I propose, of tracking the interests and emphases in textual portions which are identified by tracing

word clusters (Leitwort), unifying themes, particular modes of expression, and

boundary markers, does often require us to give attention to larger expanses of text Nevertheless, what I hope to show is that, even though personal bias may impact the interpretive process, the method provides an even-handed way for exploring the congruence of interests of the texts and so a basis for shared, open reflection

To demonstrate the importance of form and rhetoric for understanding our faiths I am using sample texts which feature female characters I will set out two primary examples from the Old Testament where recognition that the texts are shaped according to principles of semitic rhetoric has invited review of established interpretations Using figures, in order to be concise, I demonstrate structural relationships within the texts, highlighting their interpretative significance In each case I supplement the observations by showing parallels and differences in texts with which they resonate, found elsewhere in the Bible and the Qur'an In this way I hope

to illustrate the implications of attentiveness to rhetorical form for across faiths conversation To provide closing summary I will take one further sura to show how rhetorical form suggests leading interests

As this is an introductory overview intended to show how such an approach might inform our conversations I do not dwell long on fine details This is not to say that they are not there: evidence of repetition, parallelism and ring structures are found at the macro – whole book or whole sura - level, at the micro – single verse - level, and also at the middle level, so that, for example, there are portions in parallel and rings within rings Cuypers argues that all analysis must start at the micro level (Cuypers, 2011:5) To demonstrate and explore implications, and to gain a feel for its intuitive impact amongst those for whom the form was 'common sense', I suggest though that

it is helpful to be introduced through big picture To do this I, on occasions, refer to one or other of the seven conventions which social anthropologist Mary Douglas has summarised as characterising semitic rhetoric (Douglas, 2007: 36-38, 126)

The importance of rhetorical form:

1 Hannah in the Book of Samuel:

I start with this unlikely part of the Hebrew Bible because it illustrates the interpretative significance, in terms of identifying theological interest of a discourse, when rhetorical structure is taken as a major clue to meaning As it happens it does also have implications for conversations about the presentations of Mary in the Bible and in the Qur'an

Appreciation of rhetorical structures in Hebrew text has, in more recent years, brought into question the long standing conclusion that Samuel-Kings is simply a badly redacted succession narrative (eg., Brueggemann, 1992:219-234, 235-251) Recognition that the final form of the book of Samuel is a ring structure, in which Hannah serves as a major clue to the principle that the humble are raised and the mighty brought low, has contributed to fresh understanding of leading interests in the book The structure shows the book to be theologically sophisticated, with an interweaving of references to those without institutionally sanctioned social, political and religious power, and who are mainly women, which subvert notions of what is important for the outworking of divine purposes

Figure 1: Structure in the Book of Samuel

Macro-structure

HANNAH

 problem

 at the place of sacrifice

 prayer

[Yahweh, rock, horn, thundering, raising humble, bringing mighty down]

Lament: ‘How the mighty are fallen’ (2 Samuel 1:19-27)

'Appendix' (2 Samuel 21-24)

David prayed

Rizpah’s action prompts honourable action

God answers prayer on behalf of the land

[Yahweh, rock, horn, thundering, raising humble, bringing mighty down]

David prayed • at the place of sacrifice

Finally David acts honourably • prayer

Yahweh answers prayer on behalf of the land

DAVID

Figure 1 sets out the overall structure of the book of Samuel, highlighting correspondence between the story involving Hannah at the beginning and David at the end It shows the final form to be enveloped by the recounting of divine intervention as 'God answered prayer' (1 Sam 1:20, 2 Sam 21:14 and 24:25) The form also enables recognition of a shift in the locus of cultic worship (Shiloh at the start, and the threshing floor of Arunah, later the site of the temple, at the end), allied

to the unchanging and emphasised principle that high-handedness results in a fall, whilst humility leads to exoneration

At first glance the book of Samuel is dominated by powerful male characters It is, however, notable that powerless female characters impact outcomes (I give one example, but interesting alternatives could have been chosen.) It is noteworthy that none of the male agents who dominate the scene in which Rizpah is introduced actually affect the development of events as they had intended A woman who has appeared as mere collateral, in the exchanges between Ishbosheth, Abner and David (2 Sam 3:7), reappears as an agent with resolve whose action impacts the denouement of the narrative (2 Sam 21:1-14), inviting attentive readers to reconsider the conclusions they have been making as they have progressed through the accounts Further, the significance of the women is not predicated by their capacity

to bear children, though they are characterised by the tendency to protect and value life Even though Hannah does bear a child who will become an important male leader, her significance in the text arises not simply from her capacity to produce sons but through her independent faith-based initiative expressed in prayer (These are emphasised in the 'middle-level' and 'micro-level' structures of the opening chapter) The male characters who are counterparts to her story are, much as in other stories of barren women in the Bible (see Alter 1981, 1983), shown by comparison to be (bumbling and) inadequate Overall, when read in the light of

semitic rhetoric, the book of Samuel does not seem to be enamoured of male power, but to provide critique which is nuanced by the interplay of gendered characters, and especially by the initiatives of women to promote, sustain, nurture and protect life

1.1 Related material for comparative conversation:

a) Of Mary in the Gospel of Luke:

In the New Testament these intertwined interests of women and of prayer, and the principle that the humble are exalted and the mighty brought low, are particularly picked up in the Gospel of Luke The Gospel of Luke carries strong allusions to the opening of the book of Samuel and has overlapping theological emphases These are evident in stories related to prayer (Luke18) and in more numerous matching accounts of women and men, such as the attention given to Anna as well as Simeon (2:25-35), sabbath healings (13:10-17, 14:1-6), parables (eg., 15:1-8, 8-10, being the stories about the lost sheep and the lost coin) The opening chapter evokes various comparisons with events in the Old Testament: the stories of the aged and childless Abraham and Sarah, the birth of Samson, and interaction between Ruth and Naomi, and Deborah and Jael, but especially the story of Hannah and Samuel all find echoes

in the accounts of Zechariah, Elizabeth and Mary It is also, to coin Bauckham's (2002:49) term 'gynocentrically gendered', with the meeting of Mary and Elizabeth at its heart

Significant events in the Temple flank the the first two chapters, whilst events in the central part, in particular the births, are located away from the cultic centre (in hill country, home, desert, inn, and fields)

Statement (child growing) (Temple)

In echoes of the way the story of Samuel's birth creates anticipation of what is to follow (1 Samuel 2:26) the parallel sections culminate with summary statements about the maturing of the children who have been born (Luke 1:80, 2:40,52) The double ending is a characteristic device of ring-structures (Douglas, 2007:126)

Mary is the main agent in the opening two chapters The song she gives voice to

after her encounter with Elizabeth echoes that of Hannah in Samuel, setting out

themes that will emerge in the narrative to follow, including the theme of reversal:

'He has brought rulers down from their thrones

but has lifted up the humble' (Luke 1:52)

b) Of Mary in Surat Āl 'Imrān (Q3):

Turning to the Qur'an we find there is clear resonance between Surat Āl 'Imrān and

the opening of the Gospel of Luke, in that they both give account of the

annunciations of the births of John the Baptist (Yaḥyā in the Qur'an) and of Jesus

(ʿIsā in the Qur'an) In the sura too, the stories are set in the context of prayer, with

women as lead characters, and it also engages with the principle of humility as an

attribute of faith There are echoes of the Magnificat (Mary's song) if not of the songs

of Hannah and David [see Figure 3]

The Qur'an scholar, Angelika Neuwirth (2005:244, 2010:528) proposes that the initial

influence on Mary's song, in the Gospel of Luke, is a Maccabean war song, whilst the

detail in Surat Āl-ʿImrān reflects familiarity with the morning and evening offices of

Syriac Christian liturgical services which involve the reciting of the Magnificat and the

Benedictus (Zechariah's song, Luke 1:68-79) Rhetorical analysis cannot give

categorical response to Neuwirth's proposals (Charlesworth (1982) provides grounds

for understanding that it was not uncommon for Jews, and Jewish Christians, of the

Second Temple period to rework hymns around traditional themes and phrases)

With regard to Mary's song I have already given reasons for recognizing an

intentional relationship between the songs in the Gospel of Luke and in the Book of

Samuel Analysis of the sura also suggests purposefulness rather than mere

dependency in these qur'anic resonances with Christian material

Figure 3

I Samuel 2

He brings low, He also

exalts.

He raises the poor from the

dust, He lifts the needy from

the ash heap To make them

sit with nobles, And inherit a

seat of honor; For the pillars

of the earth are the LORD's,

And He set the world on

them

2 Samuel 22

You save the humble, but your eyes are on the haughty

to bring them low

The God who executes vengeance for me, And brings down peoples under me,

Who also brings me out from my enemies; Thou dost

Luke 1

He has brought down rulers

from their thrones, And has

exalted those who were humble.

He has filled the hungry with good things; And sent away the rich empty-handed.

He has given help to Israel His servant, In remembrance

of His mercy,

Sura 3:26

Say: O God, Master of the Kingdom

You give kingship to whom you please

And take away the kingship from whom you please You exalt whom You please and humble whom you please

In Your Hand is all the good,

He keeps the feet of His

godly ones, But the wicked

ones are silenced in

darkness; For not by might

shall a man prevail.

Those who contend with the

LORD will be shattered;

Against them He will

thunder in the heavens, The

LORD will judge the ends of

the earth; And He will give

strength to His king, And

will exalt the horn of His

anointed.

even lift me above those who rise up against me;

Thou dost rescue me from the violent man.

Therefore I will give thanks

to Thee, O LORD, among the nations, And I will sing praises to Thy name.

He is a tower of deliverance

to His king, And shows loving-kindness to His anointed, To David and his descendants forever.

As He spoke to our fathers,

To Abraham and his offspring forever.

And You have the power over everything!

On the basis of language and thematic develop I find that the sura has two, almost equally sized, major portions It shows emphasis at beginning and end on the

creedal assertion, lā ilāha illā huwa – 'There is no god but He' (3:2, 6, 18), whilst, at a

macro-level, portions in the central material are identifiable by the way the sura addresses Christians and the Muslim community

Figure 3: Structure of Surat Āl ʿImrān (Q3)

1 Alif Lam Mim

2-30 Creed

31-61 Mary & Jesus

People of the Book

64-99 Abraham (& other prophets)

100-120 on relating to People of the Book 100-180 121-148 Coping with battle loss Oh

Believers

149-189 resisting unbelievers /People of the Book

190-200 Creed

The content also shows that, at the time (following the battles of Badr and Uhud), interaction with People of the Book was causing some confusion within the newly formed community Affirmative statements about the practices of some People of the Book, possibly monks or priests (3:17), and of characters foundational to the Christian account of monotheism, are counter-balanced by warnings about possible negative influence Structure shows this to be of central concern

However, the kind of deference given to the women characters, Mary and her mother, is unusual in the Qur'an By implication their prayers affect change Mary is

identified as chosen (iṣṭafāki) above all women (3:42) in a way which associates her with the leading prophets of previous epochs (Adam, Noah, Abraham's family, and

the family of 'Imran, chosen (iṣṭafā) 'over all people' – 3:33) Nevertheless, the text

makes clear that Mary, the prayerful, was made fit for her chosenness because God made her grow in purity (3:36,37) The earlier phrases which echo the Magnificat also shift all emphasis to the initiative of God: Q3:26 recounts God's sovereignty, stating, 'You give control to whoever you will and remove it from whoever You will; You elevate whoever You will and humble whoever You will ' (Abdel Haleem trans.) The phrase no longer sets out a principle of reversal that gives hope to the marginalised, as found in both Samuel and Luke, but asserts the controlling power of God

To summarise: Consideration of Hannah and the book of Samuel has drawn attention to the way the book carries a critique of leadership through its narrative demonstration that the humble are lifted up whilst those who are high-handed are brought low Within this (are) women (who) embody the values and concerns of Yahweh The form and content of the Gospel of Luke echo this There are continuities in Surat Āl ʿImrān, but also discontinuity created by the emphasis on the initiatives of Allāh

2 Of the wife of Adam (Eve) and the Book of Genesis:

To show that this is not a lone illustration of the impact of interpreting in the light of semitic rhetoric I turn to another portion of the Hebrew Bible, where application of the principles has shifted the contours of debate I simply summarise detail not usually drawn on when Eve is the focus of comparison

Tribles's 1972 paper on Genesis 2-3 and her book God and the Rhetoric of Sexuality

(1978) have had a seminal role in awakening awareness that attention to rhetorical elements in a text affects interpretation Her attempts to 'depatriarchalise' reading of the Hebrew Bible has also inspired re-reading of the Qur'an by some Muslim women scholars

My understanding of the rhetorical interests of the Genesis material are similar to Trible's, though I have, further, been drawn to conclude that there is an over-arching structure to the whole of Genesis which the opening chapters mirror, and it is on that

I want to briefly reflect, as it again highlights the effect of reading in the light of the broader text rather than atomistically

 Good (tob) is a key opening term (Genesis 1) Evil (ra') is secondary, and in

the denouement the evil enacted by Joseph's brothers is declared to be serving the good which God has been accomplishing (Genesis 50:20)

 If we recognise Genesis to be in four major portions, the first and the last feature man/ humanity in the image of God/ representing the god king Pharaoh established to exercise dominion over the earth and its produce, whilst the two central portions are especially dominated by the relationship between husband and wife Likewise, the frame of Genesis 2-4 is the

relationship of humanity to humus, adam to adamah whilst at heart is the relationship of man and woman, ish and ishshah:

hā'ādām/ha'adāmāh (2:4b-17) - ish/ ishshah (2:18-3:16) - hā'ādām/ha'adāmāh (3:17-24)

 The Genesis material presents woman as an active and articulate corresponding partner, both valued, and sharing culpability in the breakdown

in relationships The account of the Primal couple, including the incident in the garden, has a certain open-endedness about where blame lies It sets the scene for dynamics which the ensuing narratives explore Women are key participants in the unfolding events, not just through child-bearing, but in practical and ethical ways Notably, in the fourth portion, mirrored words indicate resonance between the story of Eve and the stories involving Tamar and Potiphar's wife The wit and initiative of Tamar promotes recognition of

righteousness (38:26) whilst Potiphar's wife acts wickedly (ra' – 39:9).

Importantly the initiative of Tamar triggers the conscience of Judah in readiness for initiatives he will take in the denouement of the Genesis epic

 What Genesis establishes about Eve is that she is neither the source of wisdom nor originator of life, but for all that she is an important, that is, integral, participant in the commission to fill the earth and have dominion over it

2.1 The wife of Adam in the Qur'an

There are seven qur'anic accounts which include the refusal by Iblis to bow down to humanity (Q2:30-39, Q7:11-25, Q15:28-43, Q17:61-65, Q18:50, Q20:116-123, Q38:71-85) Five of these refer specifically to Adam, out of which three recall events

in the Garden and make reference to Adam's wife She is not mentioned anywhere else