Uses of Active Plant-Based Learning (APBL) in K-12 Educational Settings A White Paper Prepared for the Partnership for Plant-Based Learning by Scott P. Lewis, Ph.D.

Table of ContentsPages Section 1 Rationales for Using Plants in Learning 4-7 Section 2 Research Findings from the Education Literature 8-19 Section 3 Best Education Practices That Reflec

Uses of Active Plant-Based Learning (APBL) in K-12 Educational Settings

A White Paper Prepared for the Partnership for Plant-Based Learning

by Scott P Lewis, Ph.D.1

1 The author would like to thank Amy Gifford, Billie Goldstein, and Cindy Klemmer, for their review

of earlier drafts of this document

Table of Contents

Pages

Section 1 Rationales for Using Plants in Learning 4-7

Section 2 Research Findings from the Education Literature 8-19

Section 3 Best Education Practices That Reflect Taking 20-28

an Active Approach and That Support National Standards

Section 4 Exploration of Exemplary Plant-based 29-46Programs Situated at Schools or Institutions from a

Survey Conducted for this Paper

of active, plant-based learning, followed by a brief history of plant-based education in theUnited States, and then a detailed outline of this paper.

Plant-based education in the United States goes back more than 100 years The study movement, which was an attempt to reform elementary education in this country from about 1890 to1930, promoted outdoor work and first-hand observations of commonplants and animals as a way to improve teaching methods and students’ connections to the earth (Doris, 2002; Shair, 1999) In the late 1800s, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society provided educators with training for teaching gardening in schools

nature-(Subramaniam, 2002) The first school garden in this country was developed in 1891 in Roxbury, Massachusetts, at the George Putnam School by Henry Lincoln Clapp, who had studied school gardens in Europe By 1918, “youth gardening” was well

established, and there was at least one school garden in every state (M.R Sealy as cited in Subramaniam, 2002) School gardening was considered a patriotic duty of students during the two world wars, but Sealy notes that gardening later waned in importance as schools focused on other areas, such as technology A revival of school gardening in the U.S occurred in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of reform efforts connected to the “War on Poverty.” During this time, a growing concern about the environment also motivated many educators to focus on developing school gardens In recent years, a resurgence in school gardening has been attributed to national and regional conferences, beginning in 1989 with a symposium sponsored by the Brooklyn Botanic Garden and continuing in 1993 with the Youth Gardening Symposia conducted

by the American Horticultural Society (Heffernan, 1997) These conferences have focused on ways that children’s gardens could support educational goals as well as beautify school grounds

Today, plant-based learning is found in a diverse array of programs in the schools, such

as gardening and horticulture programs, formal biology and botany courses,

environmental education, nutrition education, science fairs, and school ground

restoration projects Many exciting school-based programs have been started in recent years with the development of excellent new curricula such as GrowLab, Life Lab, JuniorMaster Gardener, Project Learning Tree, Fast Plants, and Project Wild Plant-based

Active Plant-Based Learning refers to activities, programming, and curricula that use plants as a foundation for integrating learning in and across

disciplines through active, real-world experiences that also have personal

meaning for children and youth.

learning also takes place outside the school setting when children visit parks and

botanical gardens, participate in extramural club projects such as removing invasive plant species, and study nature at summer camps Examples of programs linked to plant-based learning in K-12 education are listed in the appendix Rather than

evaluating or recommending particular program content, the focus here is on

determining why studying and working with plants is desirable, why an active approach

to learning with plants is preferable to a traditional approach, and what practices are noteworthy in the review and planning of plant-based education

In order to address the wide range of possible plant-based education programs that could be offered in grades K-12, this paper takes a broad look at research in plant-based

education as well as active learning Section 1 begins by offering three rationales for the importance of plant-based learning in K-12 education Section 2 addresses

research connected to this learning Because there is currently only a modest amount ofresearch specifically assessing children’s learning when they are engaged in active plant-based activities, this section is divided into two parts to provide a larger theoretical

base for thinking about plant-based learning The first part, 2A, is a summary of the findings in the educational literature on plant-based learning In part 2B, a research-

based argument is developed for the importance of active learning in general This second part draws from research in the fields of education and psychology It includes adiscussion of the types of “alternative conceptions” that children may have about plants

It also includes a discussion of how active learning can be facilitated through a social

constructivist approach This is further developed in Section 3, which describes a

general model developed for science education that has been modified to specifically

address active plant-based learning Section 4 of the paper includes a review of

exemplary plant-based programs in the U.S and the active learning practices they

support In Section 5, the final section of the paper, recommendations are given for

ways to implement active plant-based programs and to overcome potential barriers to such programs

Section 1 Rationales for Using Plants in Learning

A Recognition of the Importance of Plants

One important reason for using plants in learning is that the majority of people are

“generally poorly acquainted with plants, looking down on them or simply ignoring them” (p 17, Hallé, 2002) Wandersee and Schussler (2001) describe this tendency to

overlook plants as “plant blindness.” Apparently, much of the time most people can’t see

the forest or the trees!

Our poor awareness of plants seems to be inversely related to their importance Plants are absolutely vital to our existence They are primary producers, converting the sun’s energy and atmospheric gases into living matter through photosynthesis; almost all consumers, including humans, depend on them directly or indirectly for food Plants alsosupply us with a host of products, including medicines, fuel, fiber, building materials, paper, beverages, and perfumes We are literally surrounded by plants and their

byproducts They provide us with great beauty in natural settings and in

human-fashioned landscapes around our homes and places of work They are the great lungs for the planet, providing oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis They help filter pollutants from our air and water Plants help provide cooling through transpiration, and recycle large quantities of water that are then released to the atmosphere through this process They hold soil in place, and counteract the effects of atmospheric changes such as increased amounts of carbon dioxide, slowing the impacts of global warming They provide shelter and habitats for animals

Over the centuries, plants have played a crucial role in the growth of civilization They have served as the objects of search for hunter-gatherers, the basis of the development

of agriculture, the spur for global exploration, and the object of experimentation in scientific quests to learn about the building blocks of life (Paye, 2000) Thus, learning about plants contributes not only to our appreciation of the complex web of life on this planet but also to our understanding of who we are as humans (For a more detailed discussion of ways that plants benefit people, see

http://koning.ecsu.ctstateu.edu/Plant_Biology/Why_Plants.html.)

Although plants are critical to our existence, they seem to fade into the background as inanimate objects – mere scenery and staging – for most adults and children

B Cross-Disciplinary Learning Is Enhanced by Study of Plants

Another important reason for using plants in children’s learning has to do with the

strength and diversity of the connections between the study of plants and the core standards of many academic disciplines

There are a significant number of important content standards that are associated directly or indirectly with plants

The Benchmarks for Science Literacy (1993) lists a number of standards by grade linked

to the study of plants under a section titled “The living environment.” In grade 2, for

example, students should know that “plants and animals both need to take in water, and animals need to take in food In addition, plants need light” (p 119).

The National Science Education Standards (1996) link the study of plants to a variety of scientific domains In the life sciences, for example, students in grades K-4 are

expected to learn about the characteristics of living organisms: “Each plant or animal has different structures that serve different functions in growth, survival, and

reproduction” (p 129) In grades 9-12, students are asked to study plants through

evolution: “The millions of different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms that live on earth today are related by descent from common ancestors” (p 185)

Under the physical science standards of “motions and forces” in grades 5-8, students should “comprehend that the sun is a major source of energy for changes on the earth's surface The sun loses energy by emitting light A tiny fraction of that light reaches the earth, transferring energy from the sun to the earth The sun's energy arrives as light

with a range of wavelengths, consisting of visible light, infrared, and ultraviolet radiation”

(p 155) Plants, of course, are adapted to utilize some of this energy during

photosynthesis Under the standard “Science and technology in local, national, and global challenges,” students in grades 9-12 are expected to know that “Humans have a major effect on other species For example, the influence of humans on other organismsoccurs through land use – which decreases space available to other species – and pollution – which changes the chemical composition of air, soil, and water” (p 199).These are just a few of the many science standards that are directly or indirectly linked

to the study of plants Readers are encouraged to review the Benchmarks for Science

Literacy and the National Science Education Standards for a complete list

The study of many other school subjects is also enhanced by using plants in the

curriculum In mathematics, for example, the standards set by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) provide that students in pre-kindergarten through grade 2 should count with understanding and recognize "how many" in sets of objects Teachers could address this standard by asking students to count how many there are

of each of two kinds of plants in a collection As another example, the standards specify that students in grades 6-8 should select and apply techniques and tools to accurately measure length, area, volume, and angle, to appropriate levels of precision (2000) Teachers can meet these standards by having students plan and create a school

garden Plant-based learning also leads to many other uses of mathematics For example, when students are engaged in selling produce that they raised in gardens, theyemploy calculation algorithms to total a bill or to make change Thus, many of the mathematics standards and many different kinds of mathematics are readily addressed through the use of plants

Organized by themes, the Social Studies Standards (National Council for the Social Studies, 1994) also offer many opportunities for using plants to teach various subjects For example, in describing the first theme, “culture,” the standards declare that “social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of culture and cultural diversity.” Another theme states that “social studies programs should include experiences that provide for the study of people, places, and environments.” These requirements can be met, for example, by studying the way that food plants have been used and distributed in and by different cultures The introduction of the potato to Europe from the Americas had far-reaching consequences for the development of an

important nutritional source and the subsequent famine and mass emigration from Ireland when the crop was devastated by a fungus

The arts curriculum also provides fertile ground for the study of plants For

example, the arts standard for understanding and applying media, techniques,

and processes requires that students in grades 5-8 “select media, techniques,

and processes; analyze what makes them effective or not effective in

communicating ideas; and reflect upon the effectiveness of their choices”

(National Standards for Arts Education, 1994) Teachers can address this

standard by having students create drawings or models of plants and plant

development using different media

These are but a few of the many academic standards that are addressed in teaching about plants The strength and diversity of the connections between plants and the various academic disciplines are being recognized by educators in many locales For example, a recent publication by the California Department of Education (2002) outlined specific state education standards for grades 2-6 in science, history/social science, mathematics, and English/language arts that could be linked to use of school gardens Not only can plants be used in learning about many different disciplines but, more importantly, they can be used as an integrating context for study For example, teachers

at one school who were part of the survey for this study and who created an outdoor classroom for their school reported using their habitat for study of environmental

education concepts, for a class on inventions, as a practice area for measurement skills, and for a lesson in social studies on imagining what life was like for Native Americans living in such a setting

Using plants as an integrating context results in more coherent teaching, and provides opportunities for children to develop more in-depth understanding of interrelated

subjects

C Support from Studies of the Impact of Nature on People and the Movement to

Restore School Grounds

A third reason for using plant-based education comes from studies of human

dependence on and interaction with nature Although this work usually does not single out the impacts of plants from the totality of nature (which includes other biotic and abiotic elements of the environment), it has implications about the consequences of using plants in educational settings that are important, particularly as they relate to efforts to use plants in school ground restoration

Humans have a deep historical connection with nature Some have suggested that this connection has gradually evolved (Rivkin, 1997) Wilson (1984) says that this may include “an innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes” (p 1)

This connection with nature may even have given rise to a special intelligence over the course of human evolution Howard Gardner, who developed the theory of multiple intelligences, recently added an eighth intelligence, which he calls the “naturalist

intelligence” (Gardner, 1999) People who exhibit this intelligence can readily recognize and categorize flora and fauna as well as other important differences in the natural world

Kellert (2002) also underscores the importance of humans’ links to nature, and posits that “direct experience of nature plays a significant, vital, and perhaps irreplaceable role

in affective, cognitive, and evaluative development” (p 139) Citing the presentations of speakers at an international symposium on children, plants, and gardens, Heffernan (1994) discussed how natural places may contribute to children’s awareness of time andplace and their sense of becoming individuals distinct from their parents Francis (1995) described gardens as sites where children develop ideas and attitudes toward the natural and built environments

For many years, Rachel and Stephen Kaplan – researchers at the University of

Michigan – have studied the psychological perspective of human interactions with nature These studies have investigated perceptions of nature, preferences for types of surroundings (e.g., urban scenes vs nature scenes), the experience of nature, and restorative benefits of interacting with nature They found that interactions with nature help restore mental effectiveness in such areas as recovery of directed attention and reduction of “mental clutter,” and also encourage reflection on important goals (1989).The recuperative powers of contact with nature have also been cited in efforts to restore school grounds The school ground naturalization movement, which began in the UnitedKingdom, was a response to the perception that the empty areas of mown lawns and asphalt on school grounds conveyed messages that were contrary to intended school outcomes (Evergreen, 2000) The movement is also concerned with the loss of

children’s interactions with natural environments as a result of a variety of factors, including urbanization, pollution, television, video games, automobiles, and crime

(Francis, 1995; Heffernan, 1994; Nabhan and Trimble, 1994; Rivkin, 1997) As a

consequence, efforts have been made in the U.K to transform school grounds using trees, shrubs, and wildflowers This has inspired similar efforts in Canada, Sweden, andnow in the United States One general benefit attributed to school ground naturalization

is an improvement in children’s language skills as they engage in more creative play in more diversified spaces (A Taylor et al in Evergreen, 2000) In addition, students

working to rebuild school grounds as more natural settings often experience a sense of pride in accomplishing a collective goal and in nurturing living things (Evergreen, 2000)

In summary, the critical roles of plants in our lives, the suitability of plants for furthering the goals of a variety of educational disciplines and for creating a context for integrating these disciplines, and the special benefits of a human connection with the totality of nature, including plants, all provide key rationales for advocating the study of plants Recognizing the substantial value of using plants for learning, some educators have been incorporating plants into formal and informal education for many years The next section of this paper reviews research on these uses

Section 2 Research Findings from the Education Literature

The use of plants in the curriculum has been found to contribute to a wide range of cognitive development and affective growth in children This portion of the paper

describes these findings in two parts The first deals directly with how plants are seen

as a focal point for learning, and the second takes a look at the role of active learning in educating children

A Benefits of Learning with Plants

The use of plants in children’s learning has been touted since as long ago as the 1600s, when Comenius advocated that gardens be attached to schools so that students might enjoy the sight of plants (Marturano, 1999) Since that time, a number of educators haveweighed in on the benefits of using plants in schools Many of these benefits have been discussed anecdotally and will be described in the next subsection; recent work using a variety of quantitative and qualitative research tools offers more substantive evidence, and will be described in a subsection to follow

Anecdotal Discussion of Benefits of Using Plant-Based Learning

In an article outlining the origins of garden-based instruction, Marturano (1999) provides

a historical review of why such learning was thought to be important for children She writes that Rousseau, for example, believed that gardens provide opportunities to train the senses, setting the stage for reasoning Friedrich Froebel, the creator of the kinder-garten (literally, a garden of children), saw the garden as a place to build character and responsibility (Marturano, 1999) Maria Montessori believed that gardening also taught children moral education and encouraged the contemplation of nature (Waliczek, 1997) Gardening was also thought to encourage a focus on work (Clapp, 1901) John Dewey thought that gardens allowed children to develop their thinking skills He believed, for example, that having students work in such settings could lead to their understanding the role of farming and horticulture, as they studied growth, soil chemistry, and the impacts of factors such as light, air, pests, and pollinators (Marturano, 1999) In a commentary, Marturano herself extols the virtues of children’s participation in gardening

as providing

sustained opportunity for physical, emotional, social and cognitive development Activity in the out-of-doors brings joy and vigor to life The fragrances, textures, colors, tastes and sounds delight the senses The gardening experience encourages questioning, describing, predicting, sequencing, inferring and other thinking skills Planning a garden and arranging the garden plot are visible expressions of a mind atwork Gardening provides an opportunity for children and adults to work together to set goals, solve problems, tend their garden and enjoy the fruits of their labors The learning that takes place in a garden is as significant for today’s urban and suburban youngsters as it is and was for their agrarian predecessors (p 63)

The benefits of using plants delineated by various authors also refer to the acquisition of important skills, attitudes, concepts, and health benefits (both physical and

psychological)

For example, as students worked to create a butterfly garden, they were said to have developed responsibility and nurturing skills as well as science process skills They alsowere thought to have learned to evaluate problems, set goals, and make decisions in real-life contexts (Smith, 1995) Gardening may provide a way for students to improve their physical development, observation skills, and sense development (Starbuck et al., 2002); a way for teachers to create an atmosphere of cooperation and equality (Nelson, 1988); and a way for children to learn empathy, compassion, self-discipline, and a deep appreciation for the authentic (Waters, 1999)

Reviewing a South Carolina program that was designed to support/promote

environmental stewardship through caring for areas with plants, Vander Mey and

McDonald (2001) suggest that important kinds of learning can take place in such a program, including job skills, teamwork, and a variety of academic skills in areas such aswriting, sculpting, math, and nutrition

Gardens are used as part of a therapeutic treatment for psychological issues, and as a way to help youth with disabilities (Moore, 1989; Morgan, 1989) The use of a school basement greenhouse and related/connected classroom lessons in a New York City public school was described as improving children’s attitudes about coming to school and their respect for living things (Stetson, 1991) Use of gardening activities reportedly enabled teachers to integrate a variety of subjects, such as mathematics, literature, science, and cultural geography, in an authentic, real-world way (Gwynn, 1988;

Marturano, 1995; Warrick et al, 1993) This approach motivates students to learn important concepts more easily than when these subjects are artificially segregated Gardening activities are seen as a way of helping young children observe the natural processes of growing plants (Clemens, 1996) As previously mentioned, connecting people to nature through activities such as gardening is said to have positive restorative effects (Evergreen, 2000) This connection with nature may also lead to an improved environmental ethic (Pivnick, 2001), and may help children build sustainable

development values (Moore, 1995) School gardens are also seen as a way to help children develop respect for different cultures and to help foster understanding in

increasingly diverse schools (Heffernan, 1997) In a UNESCO report, Desmond et al (2003) looked at uses of gardening as an educational tool internationally, and discussed how gardening is viewed not only as a means of teaching ecological literacy, sustainabledevelopment, nutrition, diet, health, food production for trade, and vocational

competencies, but also as a way to add “a sense of excitement, adventure, emotional impact and aesthetic appreciation for learning” (p 218)

In 1995, the state of California launched a public school initiative called “A Garden in Every School” to develop lively plant-based environments for interdisciplinary learning Because the project description embodies many of the hoped-for benefits of gardening and working with plants that have been mentioned in this subsection of the paper, it is quoted here at length:

By encouraging and supporting a garden in every school, we create opportunities for our children to discover fresh food, make healthier food choices, and become better nourished

Gardens offer dynamic, beautiful settings in which to integrate every discipline, including science, math, reading, environmental studies, nutrition, and health Such interdisciplinary approaches cultivate the talents and skills of all students while

enriching the students' capacities of observation and thinking

Young people can experience deeper understandings of natural systems and

become better stewards of the earth by designing, cultivating, and harvesting school gardens with their own hands

School garden projects nurture community spirit, common purpose, and cultural appreciation by building bridges among students, school staff, families, local

businesses, and organizations (California Department of Education Garden

enhanced nutrition education: A garden in every school.)

Research Evidence of Benefits of Using Plant-Based Learning

Although the benefits of working with plants have been lauded for many years by a number of educators, it is important to look at what systematically conducted research says about such learning Although there is good reason to believe that the observations

of experienced educators are as valid as the results of systematic research (Lohr and Relf, 2000), the use of a methodical approach can help to uncover some important details about the impacts of this learning that less formal observation and analysis may fail to reveal

This subsection draws on research from several areas with close connections to based education, including environmental education A survey of the literature reveals that the majority of such research has been connected to gardening Findings of a general nature are reported, along with findings from studies on specific plant-based programs

plant-Findings of general research on plant-based learning.

Gardening activity has been reported to be psychologically beneficial (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989) Surveys among adults who were involved in gardening showed that theybelieved gardening promotes relaxation, and valued gardening as a healthy activity, involving exercise and fresh air (Dunnett and Qasim, 2000) In a survey conducted on the World Wide Web, Waliczek et al (2001) reported that adults who gardened with children found that the children’s self-esteem increased and stress levels decreased Lohr and Relf (2000) cite a number of physiological studies showing that responses to plants include stress reduction, mental restoration from fatigue, and calming responses They discuss the recent growth of the use of plants and gardening as a therapeutic tool, including the development of Horticultural Therapy

While developing a comprehensive report on the environment as an integrating context (EIC) in education, Lieberman and Hoody (1998) employed a survey and case study methodology to identify critical components of this approach They looked at some 40 schools in the U.S that utilized the EIC approach, and found that teachers thought the active use of schoolyards leads to more effective learning for students, more

engagement, more interest in science, and more pride in accomplishment In the case study, these perceptions were reinforced by findings that students enrolled in such environmental programs showed better performances on a variety of quantitative

measures of achievement

As previously discussed, school ground restoration projects have produced a number of general benefits as well as some specific outcomes that are directly linked to plants These include increased botanical knowledge and improved environmental attitudes (M.R Harvey, 1988, cited in Evergreen, 2000), as well as a calming effect on students, which has reduced the number of “knock and bump” playground accidents (Coffey, 2001).

A survey among teachers who had received a youth gardening grant from the National Gardening Association (DeMarco, 1997) revealed that almost all of them had used the school garden in an interdisciplinary manner, i.e., for a variety of academic and social goals, including social development therapy, recreation, environmental awareness, community relations, the arts, and exploring diversity

Trexler (1999) conducted an interview study of a group of elementary students and service elementary teachers about their “agri-food system literacy,” and found that higher scores correlated with having higher socioeconomic status, having gardening experience, and living outside urban areas In another study, surveys of K-12 students and teachers who were involved in learning through gardening and farming revealed thatsuch direct experiences motivated students across academic levels and abilities, and encouraged healthy lifestyles through physical exercise and the consumption of

pre-nutritious foods (Duesing, 1997)

Findings of studies of particular plant-based programs.

The effectiveness of a number of particular plant-based programs – many of which had gardening components – has been investigated through the use of a variety of

methodologies, including qualitative, long-term studies Two studies were conducted to evaluate Project GREEN (Garden Resources for Environmental Education Now), which was designed to help teachers integrate environmental education into the classroom through gardening The first study showed that elementary students involved in the program gained positive attitudes toward the environment and that the more outdoor-related experiences the students had, the more positive their attitudes became (Skelly and Zajicek, 1998) The authors found, however, that gardening alone did not

significantly improve test scores; students also needed a formal educational structure

In the second study, which involved both elementary and middle school students, no significant differences in attitude toward school or interpersonal relationships were foundbetween experimental groups that participated in the program and control groups

(Waliczek et al., 2001) The authors reasoned that these findings might have been related to the administration of the post-test at the end of the academic year when students may have felt more negative about school The authors did report some significant interaction effects, with older students reporting more positive interpersonal relationships and with students from schools that allowed more individual participation in the garden reporting more positive attitudes toward school

Klemmer (2002) examined the impact of the Junior Master Gardener (JMG) program on third, fourth, and fifth graders in the school district of Temple, Texas She found that boys from all grades and girls from the fifth grade who had gardening experiences as part of their science activities showed significantly higher scores on measures of scienceachievement than students who did not garden and who were taught science using traditional methods

In an article written about the JMG program, Welsh et al (1999) reported that a year study of the program in San Antonio indicated that gardening seemed to promote independent thinking and personal responsibility, as well as gains in academic, personal,and social areas The authors also noted long-term improvements in children’s self-esteem

three-Sheffield (1992) conducted a study in South Carolina to examine the impacts of an interdisciplinary garden-based curriculum on the academic achievement and affect of elementary school children classified as underachieving The students took part in a 5-week summer school program, working together to plant a heritage garden and to study plants through a variety of disciplines The researcher found significant improvement in reading and writing skills as well as self-esteem

Plant-based programs can involve some novel ways of linking plants to learning In an week unit, fifth graders in the Piedmont Carolinas were told they were to be in charge of

8-an imaginary agricultural resource center The students were taught some basic

ethnographic techniques to interview community members about growing foodstuffs, then collected life histories and artifacts and read a variety of documents, including newspapers and recipe books (Heath, 1983) Heath found both increased attendance and dramatic improvements in students’ science unit scores

Fisher (1996) evaluated a method of teaching Michigan seventh graders about the structure and function of plants using concept maps, journals, and dissections She found significant improvement in students’ understanding by using this method An evaluation of a school gardening program that taught horticulture and environmental education in several schools in Pittsburgh (Brunotts, 1998) showed that the program hadpositive effects on students’ academic and social/emotional development

Plant-based learning programs often have an impact on areas outside science For example, one researcher found that a garden-based nutrition curriculum developed for elementary school students produced a significant improvement not only in children’s nutrition knowledge but also in their food preferences (Morris, 2000) In a qualitative study of an inner-city youth gardening program in the Midwest, Rahm (2002) found that the learning community that was created while students gardened gave rise to a variety

of learning opportunities and provided a chance for students to make connections between science, community, and work Another qualitative study, which examined the effects of an innovative program that was conducted in a school-owned residence wherethird grade students could complete activities in a garden and a kitchen, found that students in the program increased their self-esteem (Ogarzaly, 1996)

In a study of a program involving high school students planning and creating a garden in

an urban setting, Fusco (2001) found that a “relevant culture” of science learning was developed, situated within the larger community This science culture was based on students’ concerns, interests, and experiences in and out of the classroom, and on the process of researching and enacting ideas

In a description of the Life Lab science program – an elementary garden-based program featuring a hands-on, applied science approach – it was reported that students

demonstrated significant gains in science achievement test scores and that students’ attitudes toward science improved (The Catalogue of the National Diffusion Network, 21st

Edition,1995) In 1989, Arenson used a case study approach to review the impacts of the Life Lab program at a California elementary school, and similarly reported that students involved in the program (as well as teachers) were encouraged to become interested in science Arenson also found that working with living things enabled

students to develop a sense of caring and ownership, and that the curriculum promoted

an integrated approach to learning

Plant-based programs can also affect students in unexpected ways An ethnographic study of a garden at an elementary school in the Midwest set out to explore children’s relationship to land and food (Thorp, 2001) The researcher found that the garden was apowerful force in reshaping the school’s culture, providing an important set of

experiences for students who had not had enough of these experiences, and serving as

an important place for creativity and self-expression

A residential outdoor education program in Canada was studied to determine whether it contributed to a change in children’s attitudes regarding the topics of conservation of plants, energy, and wildlife The author found that changes in attitudes toward plant andenergy conservation were reflected in students’ behavior, and theorized that several aspects of the program (including the pre-camp preparations, field study sessions, and attitudes of the teachers and counselors) probably contributed to these changes (Tufuor,1982)

Using interviews and observations, Alexander et al (1995) conducted a qualitative study

of the effects of children’s participation in classroom gardening They found that childrennot only experienced an enhanced daily academic curriculum but also gained pleasure from watching the fruits of their labor grow, increased interactions with parents and otheradults, and received lessons in moral development as they confronted the impacts of vandalism and neglect on their efforts

Finally, a study of “the Reggio Approach”– an arts-based, early childhood education curriculum formulated in Italy – showed that young children could develop strong

relationships to nature through long-term experiential projects For example, one projectinvolving seeds and plants encouraged children to explore and express their ideas through the use of language, drawings, and clay sculpture (Cadwell, 1996)

In summary, the research reviewed here establishes that plant-based education can have a positive impact in a number of areas important in children’s lives, including self-esteem, attitudes toward school and the environment, social development, physical and psychological health, creative thinking and problem solving, and effective learning of science and a variety of other academic subjects

B Rationale for Taking an Active Approach to Learning

Active learning occurs when educational tasks are both “hands on” and “minds on.” Many plant-based programs involve active learning which has both of these However, because the relatively few studies that have been conducted on Plant-based learning have employed a number of different approaches and methods, it is difficult to

generalize from the results In thinking about how plant-based education may benefit children, therefore, it is helpful to consider the extensive research literature about the process of active learning in general

In order to put this discussion in context, we contrast two educational approaches to teaching and learning, the “transmissionist” and the “constructivist.” A number of

American educators have been dissatisfied with a teaching approach that views the transmission of knowledge as the chief goal of schooling John Dewey, for example, talked about the importance of making positive experiences an essential part of

education, rather than using the memorization approach advocated by many of his contemporaries (Dewey, 1963) Although many American educators have advocated more student-centered approaches, even recent educational history has been

dominated by teaching approaches reflecting a transmissionist philosophy (Blumenfeld

et al., 1997) For example, there was considerable attention in recent decades in the United States – guided by learning philosophies linked to behaviorist psychology – on

“programmed instruction,” a model of education focusing exclusively on the most

efficient ways for information to be learned

Even during this time, however, curricula were being developed that emphasized

hands-on approaches to learning For example, several hands-hands-on science curricula (e.g., Elementary Science Study, Science A Process Approach, and Science Curriculum Improvement Study) introduced in the 1960s and 1970s found a wide audience

Subsequent research using measures of performance, attitude, process skills, and basicskills such as reading and arithmetic showed that students using these hands-on

approaches outperformed comparison groups (Bredderman, 1982; Shymansky et al., 1982)

Recent research in learning has led to a number of important findings that support the active approach, and that considerably broaden our initial understanding of the benefits

of hands-on learning These findings are drawn from extensive research in child

development, expert-novice learning, and the role of context in learning (Cole, 1998; Gardner, 1985; National Research Council, 2001) This research has critical

implications for understanding how children learn about plants in school and non-school settings

The contemporary view of learning is that each person constructs new knowledge and understanding in a unique way, based on that person’s previous knowledge and

experience (National Research Council, 2001; Krajcik et al., 2003) In this

“constructivist” view, learners interpret new information in terms of their prior knowledge Thus, children come to the classroom not as blank slates but with understandings shaped by their experiences related to the concepts that they are expected to learn This knowledge can come from a variety of sources, including having active

experiences, learning about the topics from adults or other peers in or out of school, visiting a museum, or watching television Such prior knowledge will influence the acquisition of new knowledge in ways that the teacher may not expect; it may even interfere with this acquisition For example, Krajcik et al (2003) discuss the problems a teacher may encounter when trying to teach students why trees drop their leaves:

Some students might think the leaves drop because they are dead Some might think the tree runs out of food Others might think that the color of the leaves causesthem to fall Some might think trees sleep in the winter Still others might think that the cold winter winds blow the leaves off These prior beliefs will affect the teaching and learning going on in the classroom Because prior knowledge and experiences influence the learning of new knowledge, it is important to reflect frequently on prior experiences (p 53)

Thus, a critical feature of effective teaching is that it elicits from students their

pre-existing understandings of the subject matter to be taught, and provides opportunities to build on or challenge the initial understanding (National Research Council, 2001)

As part of the focus on the impact of prior knowledge on students’ construction of

understanding, there has been considerable research in the last 20 years on students’ conceptions about a number of science domains (Osborne and Freyberg, 1985;

Wandersee et al., 1994) Although these prior conceptions are often labeled

“misconceptions,” Wandersee et al (1994) have suggested they be labeled “alternative conceptions,” a characterization that recognizes the stability and logic of the student’s understanding This body of research has provided opportunities to look at the

knowledge that students bring to the table that appears to be resistant to the introduction

of new conceptions in the classroom Of special interest to readers of this paper is research focusing on alternative conceptions about plants Several examples will be given here

Alternative Conceptions Related to Plants

Young children tend to categorize alive and not alive according to superficial physical

characteristics and to the presence or absence of motion (Carey, 1985; Driver et al., 1994) Older students and students more knowledgeable of biology retain aspects of

this categorization scheme, but seem to broaden their criteria for life to include more

carefully differentiated ideas of function (e.g., autonomous movement is distinguished from simple movement) and ideas about additional functions (e.g., growth, metabolism, and reproduction) If older children (seventh or eighth grade) are asked if an apple seed

is alive, many will say that it has the “potential” to grow but that it is not alive This example shows how students do not develop rich ideas about basic biological

phenomena

Osborne and Freyberg (1985) found that students at all educational levels displayed alternative conceptions, including: soil is the plants’ food; plants get their food from the roots and store it in the leaves; and chlorophyll is the plants’ blood Many students, even biology majors, are surprised to hear that the mass of a tree comes primarily from carbon dioxide found in the air and water taken from the environment This is a basic feature of photosynthesis that is found in textbooks from elementary school through highschool and college, yet many students believe that plants depend on food that comes from the soil (Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, 1987)

An interview study involving ninth graders showed that they had many misconceptions about photosynthesis and respiration (Capa et al., 2001) Research involving children ages 8 through 17 showed that many children had misconceptions related to

transpiration, believing that plants absorb water through their leaves, and that water taken up by the plant does not leave the plant (Barker, 2002) In a study investigating college students’ difficulties learning about gas exchange in plants, Beeber (1998) found that students had many such misconceptions Even college students who have

agricultural experience do not always understand the connection between aspects of plant biology, such as photosynthesis and respiration, and plants’ growing requirements (Akey, 2000) Additional examples of alternative conceptions related to the study of plants are discussed by Berthelsen (1999)

In summary, there are a number of important areas linked to the study of plants in which many students hold incomplete or alternative conceptions While researchers’ initial thinking was that students are particularly resistant to having their conceptions changed, research in this area (Wandersee et al., 1994) indicates that the quality of the instruction may be instrumental in changing alternative conceptions Thus, particular approaches toteaching and learning may be important in helping children develop accurate

understandings, as will be discussed below

Integrated, Meaningful Knowledge

Children’s alternative conceptions may be so powerful that they are resistant to new ideas Because most students memorize terms in a superficial way that does not

connect well to their experience and understanding, this newly acquired knowledge remains inert and disconnected from students’ deep-seated prior knowledge (D.Perkins,

1993, as cited in Good and Brophy, 2003) This is precisely where the importance of

active construction of knowledge comes into play In the active process, connections

are developed between new information and existing ideas, resulting in meaningful understanding (Good and Brophy, 2003, Krajcik et al., 2003) Thus, not only should students be involved in “hands-on” work with materials, but they should be engaged in

“minds-on” work, i.e., making sense of what they are doing in light of their existing understandings It is crucial for students to be involved in the conscious process of sense making so that their thinking, which is often dominated by alternative conceptions,

is brought more in line with accepted understandings

In order for this to occur, teachers must monitor how students make sense of their activity, encourage students to self-assess, and provide students with opportunities for reflection on what worked and what needed improvement (National Research Council, 2001)

Krajcik et al (2003) argue that for learning to become meaningful, students must utilize three types of knowledge: content, procedural, and metacognitive These are described next

Content knowledge refers to the most critical concepts found in a domain of study, and might also include the major theories Examples in the study of plants might include knowledge of the parts of the plant (root, stem, leaves, and flower) and how they

function, the role of plants in the ecosystem, and the chemical transformations taking place during photosynthesis

Procedural knowledge helps students develop inquiries and find answers to questions

It includes the procedures used to construct experiments and to find background

information and determine the value of this information For example, procedural

knowledge would enable a student to set up an experiment to test the role of light in growing beans, graph the growth of plants, use a microscope to study flower parts, and evaluate factors contributing to the failure of certain plants to grow

Metacognitive knowledge includes knowledge about how thinking works, as well as awareness of one’s own thinking processes Examples include knowing different

strategies for learning, such as knowing how to use search terms to find information on the World Wide Web; understanding that cognitive tasks are different (e.g., that data analysis might include transforming the data into a different representation); and having insight into one’s own strengths and weaknesses in learning Metacognitive knowledge

also includes monitoring one’s own progress on a report and understanding when to seek help

Integrating these three types of knowledge is a major challenge for the learner and for the teacher Fortunately, a perspective on learning underscoring the importance of the social context provides an opportunity for a discussion of methods that can facilitate such integration and promote active learning This approach has great relevance for plant-based learning

Social Constructivism and Learning 2

A great deal of the early work in children’s construction of knowledge was stimulated by Jean Piaget, whose work was concerned mostly with the logical constructions that children could achieve by certain developmental stages, and only minimally with the impact of social settings on this development

Most current views of constructivist thinking put a premium on the way in which

constructions of these various types of knowledge (and its subsequent development) aremediated by social environments This emphasis has its roots in research by Lev Vygotsky and Alexander Leontiev, and was later elaborated in work by researchers such

as Rogoff (1990), Lave and Wenger (1991), Saxe (1991), and Cole (1998) In this view, adults and more capable peers – in a process utilizing scaffolding – assist learners in reaching and exhibiting understandings that they could not achieve on their own

Central to this approach is the notion that the higher mental functions begin in the social arena between people, and are then internalized by the child (Vygotsky, 1978) The notion of scaffolding, and the kinds and amounts of assistance offered by others, are also central to an analysis of how children can reach higher levels of understanding Thus, these interactions become the focal point for promoting learning

The importance of the community in promoting various kinds of learning comes to the forefront when this perspective is taken We see such a research focus on a

“community of learners” embodied in the work of Brown and Campione (1990), who investigated the development of science studies in the classroom Stimulated by

research on group work in reading that uses reciprocal teaching, Brown and her

colleagues began thinking about the study of science in the classroom as a social arena where learners with a variety of complementary strengths could explore, conduct

research, and communicate their understandings with each other In such contexts, learners play a major role in supporting one another’s efforts to develop understanding.Other researchers have also focused on learning in groups, both in and out of school Intraditional communities of practice, for example, we see that novices are often accorded different types of roles because of their limited experience This “legitimate peripheral participation,” as characterized by Lave and Wenger (1991), allows beginners to

contribute to the ongoing activity while learning skills that will later allow them to becomefull participants Each community has its own practices that have evolved over time and are part of efforts to satisfy particular goals The community provides opportunities for novices to take part in these activities

In support of the “community of learners” notion, Rogoff (1994) argues that this approachleads to a focus on the way that children learn and develop while participating in

2 Readers who are familiar with Social Constructivism and Vygotsky may wish to omit this section and resume reading at Section 3

activities, rather than on traditional measures such as how much content knowledge can

be transmitted In her view, it is just as important to recognize how understanding is transformed as a result of this participation

The community also provides important norms and goals that motivate the child to learn and that guide activity Thus we may find classrooms creating community norms

whereby students ask each other to explain the process by which they solved a problem,where students compliment each other on achievements, where groups work together inways that show respect for different strengths and weaknesses, and where children’s curiosity is rewarded by their peers rather than belittled While studying plants, teachers may have very different goals in mind, for example, using plants to prepare for a

standardized test versus using plants in a project to restore school grounds Differences

in class norms and goals can lead to very different types of classroom activities and types of learning, even though teachers are aiming to cover the same content

in activities that practitioners may not be engaged in, but that may prepare them for problem solving in settings outside the school (Putnam and Borko, 2000) Thus,

students who prepare a multimedia presentation on the plants that they are growing in their school garden are practicing research and communication skills that may be useful later In both cases, authentic learning provides contexts that result in more meaningful learning

Summary

In summary, research has provided a variety of evidence of the impact of prior

knowledge on subsequent learning and the importance of an active approach in linking new knowledge to old For example, studies of students’ biological understandings haverevealed a number of alternative conceptions that children might have about plants Such knowledge can lead students to interpret teachings in ways very different from howthey were intended or even to ignore such information In response, educators have been working on a variety of means to address prior knowledge within learning settings and to guide students to understandings more aligned with accepted bodies of

knowledge Some of these approaches are based upon a social constructivist approach that recognizes the importance that peers and teachers have in mediating learning Teaching practice guided by a social constructivist approach looks much different from that guided by a traditional approach The traditional classroom is essentially a top-down, teacher-centered approach The social constructivist-oriented classroom, on the other hand, is student-centered In considering plant parts, for example, the teacher could decide that such content could be learned in conjunction with designing a garden

in a space adjacent to a classroom trailer In this classroom, students might conduct research in groups on a variety of conditions (e.g., temperature, soil, sunlight) and share

the information they find with others after reading, discussing, and debating in order to recommend particular plants to grow More experienced gardeners might visit the class

to share their plant knowledge with the children and to show them techniques of plantingand composting Students might find that some plants are being attacked by certain kinds of pests, so they might ask county extension agents about the best ways to prevent this After harvesting the fruits and vegetables, students could have a school feast in which they invite parents to assist in preparing the food, so that they learn a variety of cultural approaches to enjoying food Students could even make a short presentation to the parents about the work they did to grow the plants

The differences in activities fostered by these differences in orientation

(teacher-centered versus student-(teacher-centered) are striking The next section will provide a detailed description of critical teaching practices using a social constructivist perspective that may lead to the deeper understanding and conceptual change that is often lacking in thetraditional approach

Section 3 Best Education Practices That Reflect Taking an Active

Approach and That Support National Standards

As outlined in Section 2B above, the social constructivist approach provides a number ofdifferent features that we can use when employing an active approach in plant-based education across a wide range of programs in and out of the classroom These have great promise for engaging children in exciting, meaningful learning Some of these features are already found in a number of programs These will be elaborated on in this section with specific plant-based learning examples

A Model of Active Plant-Based Teaching and Learning Based on a Social

Constructivist Approach

Given the findings that have been discussed so far (i.e., the impact of prior knowledge and its role in mediation of new learning, research on children’s alternative conceptions, and authentic learning), the groundwork has been laid for a discussion of best practices

in active plant-based education that can be supported by a social constructivist approach

to plant-based education

Krajcik et al (2003) have developed a social constructivist model of classroom practice utilizing the active approach to teaching and learning (see especially pp 54-70) Most, ifnot all, of the features of this model can also be found in a variety of sources that

advocate reform efforts to teaching and learning (e.g., National Science Education

Standards, 1996; How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School, 2001; Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 1993; Best Practice: New Standards for Teaching and Learning in America’s Schools, 1993).

While the Krajcik et al model was developed with the classroom in mind, most of the features are relevant for both school and non-school settings where students are

engaged in learning about plants The Krajcik model has been modified somewhat for this paper to reflect the inclusions of non-school settings as well as to incorporate some additional understandings of the ways that all settings provide unique opportunities for students to learn about plants The next part of this paper will serve as an introduction

to best practices that are based on the components of active learning outlined in Krajcik

et al This list of best practices also provided the foundation for part of the survey of exemplary plant-based education programs that will be discussed in Section 4 In instances where features are more apt to apply only to science education, the letters SP (SP) are shown to alert the reader that a particular strategy may not be relevant to a non-science program This new model also combines some features from the original model that might be better understood as one feature than as two

This model has five areas of practice derived from the general reform goals and social constructivist theory that are critical for learning:

1 Active engagement with phenomena

2 Use and application of knowledge

3 Multiple representations

4 Use of learning communities

5 Authentic tasks

Each of these areas will be described in the next section along with particular strategies that support them.

1 Active Engagement with Phenomena

The idea that it is important for students to actively engage with phenomena is very important for the constructivist approach It encompasses three strategies:

A Asking and refining questions related to phenomena

B Predicting and explaining phenomena

C Having mindful interaction with concrete materials

These are detailed below

A Asking and refining questions related to phenomena

B Predicting and explaining phenomena

Krajcik et al (2003) provide a relevant plant-based example that illustrates how a

teacher can stimulate student questions in a lower elementary classroom The teacher begins by asking the students for ideas on how to test whether a seed is alive They might respond by asking – could it be planted? Could it be opened to see if something is growing inside, or could we ask someone who works in a botanical garden? Students are then asked to work in groups and refine questions by debating the merits of the suggestions, such as the possibility that cutting something open to find out if it is alive might kill it This might lead them to decide to plant the seed and then develop

additional questions on the best way to do that It also might lead to some predictions about what might happen Through this process, students grapple with important

concepts such as what “alive” means This process can easily be initiated in non-school sites For example, groups of young children could carry on such conversations in a botanical garden However, constraints in such settings, such as length of time needed

to actually grow the seeds, might necessitate having the children grow the seeds at home and then returning to discuss the results and how they matched their predictions

C Having mindful interaction with concrete materials

It is often thought that the use of hands-on materials is sufficient to engage students Research has shown decided advantages for students taught with hands-on methods versus traditional read-and-recite approaches (Mechling and Oliver, 1983) and as previously discussed in this paper in reviewing the research on the positive benefits of using hands-on science curricula The use of concrete materials that students can manipulate provides them with important information and experience that isn’t available through other methods However, giving students plants to examine without engaging them thoughtfully in what they are doing may be as detrimental to children’s learning as simply asking them to parrot information It is critical that thought be given to how students can mindfully interact with such materials and information Such involvement with concrete materials can range from mostly direct, active experiences (planning and planting a garden) to demonstrations (watching how to transplant a seedling), field trips, videos, and lectures Even activities that are not hands-on and that appear highly abstract have potential for student development through application of problem-solving skills and metacognitive efforts For example, despite the assumption that lecturing doesn’t fit the constructivist approach, how students engage with the ideas presented in

a lecture (e.g., creating questions about what they are hearing, linking it to prior

knowledge, using such information to make predictions) can be as fruitful for

development of understanding as more concrete approaches if the children are involved

in making sense of what they are doing Thus the call is not only for hands-on activities, through which students can handle the materials and gain experience and knowledge of the materials that are the object of teaching, but also for minds-on activities, through which students have opportunities to engage in high-order thinking

2 Use and Application of Knowledge

Six strategies are given for encouraging students to use and apply knowledge:

A Teachers must consider students’ prior knowledge

B Activities must encourage students to identify and use multiple resources

C Activities must involve students in planning and carrying out investigations

D Learned concepts and skills must be applied to new situations

E Students should be allowed time for reflection

F Teachers must help students take action to improve their world

Each of these will be discussed with respect to plant-based education

A Teachers must consider students’ prior knowledge.

As we have seen, consideration of the impact of prior knowledge has been an important focal point for research in education Although alternative conceptions have often been viewed as an impediment to learning about experts’ current concepts, the understandingthat students have these conceptions can provide an important basis for teaching Thus teachers can arrange lessons that help students resolve conflicts between their prior understandings and the new concepts

B Activities must encourage students to identify and use multiple resources.

In developing projects around plants, it is important for students to use a variety of information sources, such as books, CDs, the Internet, videos, pictures, and journals For example, a video might include a time-lapse sequence of the growth of a seedling toward a light source, which would support understanding of the impact of the light tropism in directing this growth A variety of such sources would help students integrate understandings more thoroughly

C Activities must involve students in planning and carrying out

investigations (SP)

Investigations are found in many subject areas, but are a particularly important method

in science In investigations, students engage in a cycle of developing questions, making observations, recording data, linking outcomes to the question in some sort of analysis, and then developing new questions Students investigating how plants grow with different types of fertilizers might first read articles in a book or magazine, or on an Internet site, and then propose different fertilizers to facilitate growth of a plant They could even predict which they think will grow faster and why They could then devise experimental conditions to test their predictions Students could keep records of the results and make reports about their findings and interpretations If conditions were confounded, there might even be a debate about what occurred A new round of

experiments might be proposed to help resolve the question Thus, students typically are engaged in a number of important scientific process skills (e.g., asking questions, recording and representing data, communicating, drawing conclusions) while

undertaking such investigations

D Learned concepts and skills must be applied to new situations.

An important finding in the research on learning has been how difficult it may be for students to apply learning to new situations, particularly if they have no practice doing

so Such application is critical in developing richer understandings and making

connections from old knowledge to new knowledge For example, students may learn the parts of plants in the classroom, but ignore trees and flowers on the school grounds during recess Teachers who understand the need to connect this new learning may make it a point to ask students to point out the plant parts when they are walking across school grounds or ask what plants they are consuming when they are eating lunch

E Students should be allowed time for reflection.

When students are engaged in learning, it is important that they be given time to reflect

on aspects of their learning Such time can take several forms It can be seen in

increasing wait-time for students to give answers during question and answer periods (Rowe, 1996) It can also be seen in going into depth and spending more time on a topic For example, it takes time to develop a plant for a garden, organize the planting, maintain and care for the plants as they grow, harvest the fruits or vegetables, and then reflect on what happened Student learning is strengthened through increased time spent on one topic so that the problems inherent in the “inch deep, mile wide” approach are avoided

F Teachers must help students take action to improve their world.

A number of topics connected to plants (invasive species, loss of native habitats and endangered plant species, genetically engineered crops) are of great social interest and are topics that help students learn critical thinking skills and develop their own opinions based on their own research of the facts available to them These issues often capture the imagination of students in middle and high school who can explore them with the teacher’s help as a way of taking action to improve their world Younger children may want to focus on local issues such as caring for individual plants in the classroom or transforming a neglected corner of the school grounds into a butterfly garden Since plants are so much a part of our lives, there are abundant opportunities for students to improve their worlds using plant-based activities and projects

3 Multiple Representations

As children make connections among ideas presented in different formats, they integratethose understandings more strongly Gardner (1983) discusses the importance of encouraging ways of representing knowledge for different modalities in his theory of multiple intelligences The strength of these connections is then enhanced and is liable

to be more easily transferred to different settings Several strategies are given by Krajcik et al (2003) in this area, two of which are relevant for plant-based learning:

A Teachers should use varied evaluation techniques

B Students should create products or artifacts to represent understanding, and revise these products or artifacts.

These are discussed below

A Teachers should use varied evaluation techniques.

There are many ways to work with plants and thus many different types of

understandings that students might generate Therefore, the use of a variety of

evaluations may help teachers gain better insight into what it is that a student is learning

In addition, varying evaluations may be helpful in getting at understandings in a wider range of children who may have strengths and weaknesses in particular areas For example, students who have limited English proficiency may be better able to

demonstrate their grasp of plant reproduction by making models or drawings This is consistent with an approach that focuses on encouraging students to play to their

strengths

In addition, learning may be better demonstrated in a number of areas through

nontraditional (non-pencil and paper) assessment methods For example, students may show knowledge of the problem of invasive plants by developing a multimedia

presentation showing problem areas near the school or reporting the results from a study of the numbers of native plants versus invasive plants in a nearby abandoned lot

B Students should create products or artifacts to represent understanding, and revise these products or artifacts.

By developing tangible representations of student understanding (artifacts) such as models or videos, students are also creating objects that can be the source of

discussions That is, students can then explain these representations to others, which enables critique on the accuracy and meaning of the representation Such feedback canenable students to further refine the artifact For example, in preparation for a science fair, a student shows a poster of the life cycle of a particular plant During the

presentation, classmates point out that the poster is missing a crucial element because itdoes not show the role of a pollinator in the reproductive cycle The student then

successfully revises the poster to take this important element into account

4 Use of Learning Communities

The social constructivist approach situates learning within a community which provides the context for what is learned In such a community, language is a critical tool for developing understanding Four strategies are given for this area, three of which are generally relevant for plant-based learning, while the fourth is more closely linked with science education which may include some types of plant-based learning:

A Students use language as a tool to express knowledge

B Students express, debate, and come to a resolution regarding ideas, evidence, concepts, and theories (SP)

C Learning is situated in a social context

D Students learn from knowledgeable others

These are detailed below

A Students use language as a tool to express knowledge.

In the Vygotskian perspective, language is an important path to concept acquisition in which children learn words’ meanings through speaking with more knowledgeable peers

or adults and then integrate them into their own speech Language can be used in a variety of ways to reinforce learning For example, in learning about seasonal tree adaptations, students can discuss ideas, give explanations in reports, and make notes ofobservations in journals This is an important avenue for connecting the study of plants

C Learning is situated in a social context.

When learning about plant topics, such as plants’ need for sunlight to produce food, students have a variety of opportunities to gain understanding These might include sharing with classmates the results of their experiments growing plants in the light and the dark, using the Internet to exchange information with others who see adaptations of plants across different latitudes and climates, and taking field trips with classmates to observe plants growing under different lighting conditions Each of these opens up opportunities for exchanges of ideas that would be more difficult for a student to acquire

on his or her own

D Students learn from knowledgeable others

A key element in the social constructivist model is research on the ability of children to learn from adults or more knowledgeable peers Vygotsky called the difference betweenwhat children can learn on their own and what they can learn with the assistance of these others the “zone of proximal development.” In this zone, the assistance of others

is manifested in scaffolding actions such as making the task simpler or modeling an action Research has focused on such learning in a variety of contexts (see Saxe et al.,

1984, for an example of scaffolding in early number development)

Scaffolding has different forms (modeling, coaching, sequencing materials in smaller chunks for success, reducing complexity, marking critical features, and using visual

tools) As the use of the term scaffolding implies, this initial support is constructed to

support the learner and is gradually withdrawn so that the learner eventually takes responsibility for his or her own learning As previously discussed, this also implies that children may play different roles depending on their level of knowledge In order for scaffolding to work, Krajcik et al (pp 67-68) suggest that it must meet several conditions(examples are provided for each condition):

a Support must be relevant to the student and the task that the student is trying to complete As an example, when comparing the size of leaves of different plants, a teacher may suggest using a chart to organize the comparisons

b Support must be within the range of the student’s understanding levels If the help

is geared at too high or low a level, it may frustrate the student For example, if an elementary school student is told that photosynthesis involves a chain of chemical events, including splitting carbon from a carbon dioxide molecule, this may not make sense to the child Conversely, building a lecture around plants’ need for water and sunshine would not be appropriate for high school students

c Timing is critical – if the help is given too long after it is needed, students may no longer be receptive For example, if children are involved in creating a garden, but are not exposed to learning about and testing soil pH until after plants have been planted, it may prove to be less interesting and far less consequential for the

children’s understanding than if they had learned about it earlier

d Students must have the opportunity to apply the newly acquired learning If students hear a suggestion that chrysanthemums help keep pests away from their garden, they might try planting some near the garden to see if it helps reduce leaf and fruit loss

e Scaffolds should be withdrawn over time to allow students to use the learning themselves without intervention For example, if a teacher helps students construct

a bar graph to help them measure bean growth, she might expect in a follow-up project that if students work in groups to study the growth of a different plant, they could create bar graphs on their own with some minimum suggestions

Scaffolding is an essential part of the classroom and should include the teacher, other children, and others In the case of studying plants, these others might include

gardeners, scientists, and horticulturists By understanding the ways that scaffolding can help support the learning, the teacher might assist the scientist in preparing suitable scaffolds so that learning is adjusted to the appropriate student level

5 Authentic Tasks

The social constructivist approach also underscores the importance of authentic

problems Such problems are linked to meanings beyond the classroom Three

strategies are given for this area, with the first involving the development of a “driving question” that is an important feature of the newly developed project-based approach to science education advocated by Krajcik et al (2003):

A Driving questions focus and sustain activities (SP)

B The topic or question is relevant to the student

C Learning is connected to students’ lives outside school

These are illustrated below

A Driving questions focus and sustain activities (SP)

The use of driving questions has been advocated by proponents of a project-based science approach as a way to develop meaningful understandings of important scientific concepts A “driving question” meets certain criteria (i.e., it must be feasible, worthwhile,

contextualized, meaningful, sustainable, and ethical – see Krajcik et al., 2003, for more)

It helps organize the learning for students in the classroom For example, the question,

“What are the best ways to grow vegetables in a garden at our school?” could lead to activities linking investigations of soil pH, photosynthesis, and pollination, and could also involve students in planning the placement of vegetables to best facilitate their growth Such a project might lead to months of activities and could draw on a wide range of resources in the school and community Although the notion of a driving question was formulated with the classroom in mind, it could easily be developed in non-school

settings to help organize activity

B The topic or question is relevant to the student.

The linking of topics to students’ lives is important for student motivation If students don’t understand why a topic is being studied, not only could it lead to behavior

problems, but students may not care enough to do the critical work of relating it to previous understandings Many topics linked to the study of plants have connections to students’ lives, but the teacher/leader may need to help clarify those links For example,many students do not recognize the importance of plants in our lives other than as food Some discussion about the ways that plants form the basis of many medicines, building materials, and clothing may encourage students to develop interests in studying these different aspects of plants’ use

Teachers using social constructivist approaches to teaching and learning support

students’ efforts to make sense of material In contrast, traditional approaches to

teaching and learning involve teachers’ transmitting information and students’ receiving it(Krajcik et al., 2003) An excellent plant-based learning example using a social

constructivist approach is provided in a vignette in the text Inquiry and the National

Science Education Standards (2000) when a fifth grade classroom investigates the

reasons that some trees on the school playground lose their leaves while others appear healthy The class begins with a question about an intriguing mystery and makes several proposals based on students’ current knowledge about what might be

happening They then undertake some group investigations of the explanations,

disconfirming some possibilities and lending more support to others Students report their findings and eventually make a suggestion to the school custodian to alter the watering practices at the school

C Learning is connected to students’ lives outside school.

The importance of making connections to students’ lives outside school is readily seen when they ask why they need to know something Fortunately, plant-based education provides excellent opportunities for students to make such associations Whether

students garden at a community garden, sell flowers at a local farmer’s market, or prepare meals from home-grown vegetables, use of plants can provide numerous means of making such links

Summary

In summary, a social constructivist model has been developed for active plant-based education that presents some of the different ways that children might benefit from this approach Because plant-based education can assume a number of different forms for children in and out of the classroom, a broad model like this is most helpful in

conceptualizing different learning strategies that can be utilized As discussed, the use

of plants connects well to these components In several ways, the use of active based learning approaches provides unique opportunities to utilize the model across a diverse number of settings and learners For example, plants are found in all areas of the country and thus are readily accessible to learners When weather prevents outside use, they can be grown indoors Plant materials can be relatively inexpensive A variety

plant-of plant “experts” abound – from botanists to farmers to herb garden enthusiasts, there are usually many experienced adults in a community who have worked with plants and are willing to become part of a community of learners The use of plants can provide a focal point for an integrated curriculum that has an astonishing array of links – arts, social studies, mathematics, science, reading, writing, and history readily come to mind Working with plants can also provide children with exercise and lead to consideration of nutrition One of the most important advantages of plant-based learning is the

opportunity to engage in authentic practices Gardening, for example, is a practice carried on by a significant percentage of the American public If done through a school

or institution, it can involve groups of children in cooperative work that not only emulates the practice as it occurs outside school, but creates opportunities to engage students in

a community of learners who are conducting research and sharing their learning with others

Although it is likely that exemplary plant-based learning programs in the U.S contain at least some of these components, one of the goals of the Partnership for Plant-Based Learning in commissioning this white paper was to identify such programs and to explorecommonalities and differences among them To enable this, a survey was developed that closely followed the model above to identify which components were reflected in each setting The next section of the paper discusses the nature of the survey and its results