The oxford handbook of archaeological ceramic analysis (oxford handbooks) by alice m w hunt (editor)

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL CERAMIC ANALYSIS Edited by ALICE M W HUNT OXFORD UNIVERSITY l?RBSS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6Dl, United Kingdom Oxford Univers.

THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF

ARCHAEOLOGICAL CERAMIC ANALYSIS

Edited by

OXFORD UNIVERSITY l?RBSS

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, ox2 6Dl',

United Kingdom

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fruition with minimum stress and maximum enjoyment Special thanks to Jeff Speakman

and the Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia, for a publication subven· tion that allowed us to include the colored plates Many of the individual contributors wish

to thank various colleagues and asso·dates for reading and commenting upon their tions, and sharing unpublished materials; space limitations preclude acknowledging each individual by name, and so consider this a heartfelt, if general, round of thanks and apprecia- tion to all involved behind the scenes

XXV

3

7

3· Designing Rigorous Research: Integrating Science and Archaeology 19

]AUME BUXEDA I GARRIGOS AND MARISOL MADRID I FERNANDEZ

4· Evaluating Data: Uncertainty in Ceramic Analysis

RoBERTo I-IAZENFRATZ- MARKS

s Statistical Modeling for Ceramic Analysis

GULSEBNEM BISHOP

6 Recycling Data: Working with Published and Unpublished

Ceramic Compositional Data

MATTHEW T BoULANGER

7· Ceramic Raw Materials

GIUSEPPE MoNTANA

ss

73

viti CO:S:TENTS

8 Ceramic Manufacture: The chaine operatoire Approach

VALENTINEROUX

9 The Organization of Pottery Production:

Toward a Relational Approach

DANIEL ALBERO SANTACREU, MANUEL CALVO TRIAS,

AND JAIME GARciA ROSSELLO

13 Fabric Description of Archaeological Ceramics

15 Petrography: Optical Microscopy

DENNIS BRAEKMANS AND PATRICK DEGRYSE

16 Ceramic Micropalaeontology

IAN P WILKINSON, PATRICK S QUINN, MARK WILLIAMS,

}EREMY TAYLOR, AND IA:-1 K WHITBREAD

q Electron Microprobe Analysis (EMPA)

CORJNA lO:-iESCU A:-ID VOLKER HOECK

20 X-Ray Fluorescence-Energy Dispersive (ED-XRF) and Wavelength Dispersive (WD-XRF) Spectrometry 342

MARK E HALL

21 Handheld Portable Energy-Dispersive X- Ray Fluorescence

Spectrometry (pXRF)

ELISABETH HOLMQVIST

22 Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) and Its Applications

for Ceramic Analysis 382

MARCIA A RIZZUTTO AND MANFREDO H TABACNIKS

23 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS)

and Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass

Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)

MARK GOLITKO AND LAU!tE DUSSUBIEUX

24 Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA) in the Study

26 Ethnography

KENT D FowLER

27 Experimental Firing and Re-firing

MALGORZATA DASZKIEW!CZ AND LARA MARITAN

28 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) in Archaeological

447

Ceramic Analysis 509

SHLOMO SHOVAL

29 Raman Spectroscopy and the Study of Ceramic Manufacture:

Possibilities, Results, and Challenges 531

)OLIEN VAN PEVENAGE AND PETER VANDENABEELE

30 X-Radiography of Archaeological Ceramics

INA BERG AND )ANET AMBERS

544

31 Organic Inclusions

MARTA MARIOTTI LIPPI AND PASQUINO PALLECCHI

32 Formal Typology oflberian Ceramic Vessels by Morphometric

ANA LUISA MARTINEZ-CARILLO AND ]VAN ANTONIO BARCELO

33· Mechanical and Thermal Properties

NOEMI S MULLER

34· Assessing Vessel Function by Organic Residue Analysis

HANS BARNARD AND ]ELMER W EERKENS

35· Typology and Classification

EuGENIO BoRTOLINI

36 Direct Dating Methods

SOPHIE BLAIN AND CHRISTOPHER HALL

Index

603

LIST OF FIGURES

3.1 Diagram flow of the states of ceramics from manufacture to the

3.2 Bar chart of Hispanic Terra Sigillata from Tritium Magallum recovered at

Baetulo, Tarraco, and Ilerda, classified according the range of estimated

3-3 Bar chart of Hispanic Terra Sigi!latafrom (a) context LL85b context

and (b) context TV83, and (c) a bivariate diagram of integrity (H,) vs

3-4 Scatter plots of evenness for Hispanic Terra Sigillata from (a) context LL85b

and (b) context TV83, and (c) evenness of the rarefaction experiment A bar

chart of the richness after the rarefaction experiment is presented in (d) 40

5.1 Bar charts describing the (a) distribution and (b) relative frequency of vessel

5.2 Pie charts describing the relative distribution of vessel types in funerary

5·3 Histogram of amphora capacity measurements from a hypothetical shipwreck 63

5·5 Bimodal distribution of mineral inclusions in a ceramic fabric 64

5-7 Back-to-back stem-and-leaf plot comparing cooking pot volumes from two sites 65 6.1 Timeline of a selection of former and current nuclear archaeometry

laboratories, and estimates of the total numbers of archaeological specimens analyzed Data compiled primarily from val 49(2) of Archaeometry 77 7.1 "Integrated approach'' for characterizing and sourcing ceramic raw materials 89 7.2 Examples of primary and secondary clays: (a) kaolinite deposits in the crater

of Mount Gibele at the volcanic island of Pantelleria (Italy); (b) outcrop of

7·3 Brick and roof tile makers in western Sicily traditionally using NaCl as

xii I, IST OF FIGURES

8.3 Example of technostylistic trees obtained after dassifying ceramic assemblages

9.1 Entanglements of the materials used to make a carinated bowL 127

9.3 Entanglement of the life-history of carinated bowls, from production until

10.1 Local reference samples, late Byzantine workshops, 'Thessaloniki, Greece, 151 10.2 Beirut medieval wares: main compositional groups as determined by

hierarchical clustering analysis, and corresponding wares 155 10.3 Beirut medieval wares: binaryplotiron-silicon (top) and histogram of

11.1 Correlation of barium and phosphorus in Roman and Germanic pottery

n.2 Leaching of calc.ium in two samples of calcareous pottery 173

12.1 Sunomary of the different le~els to approach pottery form and typological

12.2 Isomorphic relation between the decorative motifs recorded on Late Iron Age

12.3 Format translation related to hybridization phenomena between Punic

wheel-thrown vessels and hand-made indigenous pottery in the Late

14.1 Art-historical period pottery illustrations 218 14.2 Steps of traditional pottery illustration (partr) 220

14.6 Steps of new pottery illustration (part 2) 226

15.1 A standard polarizing light microscope with rotating sample stage

The camera and imaging software are essential tools for data output 235

15.3 Photomicrograph of a Late Roman, quartz-tempered cooking vessel from

16.2 Examples of the main microfossil groups that may be found

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

17.1 (a) Origin ofBSE, SE, and characteristic X-rays emitted by the interaction

between the fOcused electron beam and sample (b) BSE image of a ceramic

sample from Ibida (Roman- Byzantine period) (c) SE image of the same 290

17.2 BSE images of various compounds of a ceramic body 294

18.1 Distribution of 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratios in ceramic samples from archaeological sites of

18.2 Distribution of 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and eNd values in ceramic samples from Turkey,

18.3 Pb isotope data oflead-based glazes from New Mexico, USA, China, and

19.1 (a) Permitted electron transitions to generate X-rays of the K series (b)

Interpretation ofX-ray diffraction as the result of simple reflection (c)

Seemann- Bohlin focusing geometry for Debye-Scherrer and Straumanis

methods (d) Bragg-Brentano focusing configuration for scintillation counter

19.2 X-ray diffraction charts of an archaeological calcareous illitic clay from

19-3 X~ray diffraction charts of archaeological ceramics buried under arid and

21.2 Correlation of pXRF net peak area values to quantitative NAA data 366

21.3 PCA biplots of the variance-covariance matrix of the pottery samples

21.4 PCA biplots with density ellipses for clusters indicated by low-dimensional

22.1 Parameters and coordinates of the experimental PIXE geometry 384

22.2 Typical thin film yield curve of the Sao Paulo PIXEsystem with a Si(Li) X-ray

22.J General view of LAMPI with the ion sources on the right and the 5SDH

22-4 The external beam setup at the LAMPI with the different detectors assembled The lower part of the figure shows in detail the assembly of the coupled

22.5 Chimu ceramics at the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of the

22.6 (a) PIXE spectra of two ceramic vessels (3635 and 3601) of the Chimu culture; (b) comparison of the concentrations values obtained by FIXE at different

22.7 (a) Graph of the correlation between At Si, K, Ti and Fe elements giving rise to 4large groups; (b) graph of the correlation between AI, Si, K and Ti elements,

22.8 Sun ray plots of the elements Al, Si, K, and Ti showing the correlations in the groups and the respectively vessels in each group 393 23.1 An ICP- MS laboratory, with both laser ablation and liquid sampling

23.4 Surface geology of the Sepik coast of Papua New Guinea, with ceramic and

23.5 Backscatter SEM-EDS image of a sherd cross-section from Worn (Papua New

23.6 Discriminant function plot summarizing the results ofLA-ICP-MS analysis of all ceramic and clay pastes analyzed from the Sepik coast of Papua New Guinea 418 24.1 Schematic overview of neutron activation and subsequent decay 426 24.2 TI1e core of a research reactor provides a high-intensity source of neutrons to

24.3 The build-up and decay of radioactivity in an isotope according to its half-life

24-4 Complex gamma-ray spectrum resulting from the irradiation of an

24.5 Ceramic composition groups defined for the central Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico,

24.6 (a) The industrial potteries and bottle kilns ofNorth Staffordshire, England,

c 1900 (from an historic postcard labeled "Fresh Air from the Potteries")

(b) Each pottery manufacturer developed one or more paste recipes, with a

25.1 Schematic of the Australian Synchrotron's small- and wide-angle X-ray

scattering beamline by David Cookson and Jonathan de Booy 448 25.2 One potential schematic of an experimental setup for SR pottery analysis, here micro-X-ray fluorescence, showing the positioning of the SR beam, sample,

25.3 Reflected light micrograph, SEM micrograph, and~-XR diffractogram of the yellow-glazed area of a sherd from Mission San Luis (Florida, USA) collected

···~~··~·· ~

25.4 'Ihe three microregions of interest on a "black gloss" or "red ftguren potsherd,

as investigated by Walton and colleagues with a diverse set ofSR methods 456 25.5 An example of a high-temperature XRD pattern collected during "live" time-

26.1 The domains of ethnographic and archaeological inquiry into pottery

manufacturing practices and the two principle areas of contribution

ethnographic observations and explanations may lead to the understanding of

26.2 The distances travelled to ceramic resources (day and temper} by potters from

26.3 Range of firing temperatures and soaking times for firings in West Africa 479 26.4 Models of the technical and social influences on ceramic manufacturing based

27.1 Examples of open firing and of a traditional updraft kiln 491 27.2 Sketch of a typical firing diagram used when programming an experimental

27.3 Bar charts showing the changes in the mineral composition as a function of

27.4 Determination of the original firing temperature using the K-H method

27.5 Two samples made oft he same marly clay re-fired at 1200,C 501 28.1 Curve-fitted FT-IR spectra of the ceramic material of representative Iron Age

28.2 FT-IR spectra and second-derivatives of the spectra of the ceramic material of

28.3 FT-IR spectra and second-derivatives of reference standards of firing silicates 516 28.4 FT-IR spectra and second-derivatives of reference standards of carbonate and

28.5 FT-1R spectra and second· derivatives of reference standards of minerals

28.6 FT-IR spectra and second~derivatives of reformed minerals in pottery 521

29.1 Energy-level diagram explaining the different types of scattering 532

29.4 Plot of the polymerization index as a function of the main Si-0 stretching

30.1 Characteristic X-ray features of the main pottery forming techniques 548

30.2 Inclusion alignment in a clay coil 548

xvi L!ST Of FIGURES

30,3 Xeroradiographs of two stirn.1p jars showing both the blue color and edge

30.4 Examples of types of radiographic equipment available (a) Portable medical Sirio uolwo CR system; (b) Faxitron single-cabinet X ·ray unit 552 30.5 Radiographs of a Middle Minoan amphora (BM registration number

30.6 Radiographs of a bell-shaped handled cup (Middle Minoan I) from Knossos

30.7 Radiographs of a Mycenaean krater (BM registration number

31.2 Thin section of rice-tempered ceramic from Sumhuram, Sultanate of Oman 568 31.3 Shell-tempered ceramic from Sumhuram, Sultanate of Oman 570 31.4 Fracture surface of a potsherd from Surnhuram, Sultanate of Oman 571 31.5 Renaissance ceramic tefnpered with wool (polarized 1 mm) 572 31.6 Rice-tempered ceramic from Sumhuram, Sultanate of Oman: epidermis of the

32.2 Profiles of the eleven classes of vessels determined by preliminary descriptive

32.3 Erosion, dilation, opening and dosing characteristic curves of a profile of the database, using an isotropic (circular) structural element, normalized by the

32.4 Segmentation of a profile into rim, hody, and base 595

32.5 A given ceramic and the ten most similar shapes, with the measure of the

33.1 Typical load-displacement curves for di!Terent types of fracture observed in

archaeological ceramics: (a) unstable; (b) semi-stable; (c) stable 614

34.1 Schematic overview of different organic residues in archaeological ceramics, and techniques frequently employed to investigate these (34.1) 626 34.2 Schematic flow diagram showing the position of organic residue analysis in

34-3 The general principles of"microscopic (a)" and "molecular (b)" methods for

34·4 Schematic of the chromatography arrays used on mass spectrometers to

separate the sample into its components and convert them into a form fit to

34·5 Schematic representation of the antibody-antigen reaction 633

35.1 Two graphical representations of Petrie's chronological ordination of

35.3 '!be original diagram by which Krieger explained in detail the procedure for a

35.5 An example of categorical classification of pottery surface decoration from a

36.1 Schematic of the archaeological clock and radiation doses used in

36.2 TL glow curve on quartz grains with the various characteristic peaks and a

total OSL decay curve, made of its different components The surface under

the peaks or signal is function of the number of traps occupied before the

36.3 TL glow curve on quartz grains with the various characteristic peaks and a

total OSL decay curve, made of its different components 674

36.5 Microbalance data obtained on a Werra earthenware specimen excavated at

LIST OF TABLES

1.1 Analytical methods included in this Handbook, and which of the four primary

4-1 Uncertainty values calculated for a ceramic chemical group from the Central

j.1 Frequency distribution table describing a small assemblage of Greek pottery 6o

7-1 Chemical composition of the "average terrigenous marine clay" (after Clarke,

11.1 Chemical alteration of Roman sigillata from Arezzo, Lyon, and La

15.1 Mineral identification table derived from the integrated information of

various geological handbooks They represent a concise list of characteristics

17.1 Mean atomic number for common minerals in ceramics 292

17.2 Selected electron microprobe analyses (in mass%) and calculated structural

formulae for illite (illitic matrix), albite (Ab ), plagioclase (excluding albite),

19.1 Chemical composition of calcareous illitic clay from Otterbach, jockgrim,

19.2 List of measured diffraction angles 028 of mullite and quartz, d values

23.1 Comparison of measurements on NIST679 (brick clay) by LA-ICP-MS,

23.2 Comparison of measurements on New Ohio Red Clay (NORC) by

24.1 The sensitivity of INAA in the analysis of ceramics varies by element, from

27.1 Basic atmospheric conditions during firing in antiquity 489 29.1 Based on the lp ratio, the processing temperature of glass structures can be

30.1 Exposure times and kV for clay objects using a Faxitron cabinet X-ray

machine with a 0.5 mm focal spot, 6o em focus-to-film distance, 3 rnA, and

XX LIST Of

3.2.2 Classification rates obtained by the method with one, three, and five

32 3 ~ormalized confusion matrix resulting from the application of

the method to the database, using two subprofiles: rim and the combination

32-4 Normalized confusion matrix resulting !rom the application of the method to the database, using the rim and body sub profiles 598 33.1 Examples of material requirements placed on different ceramic products 6o6 34.1 Schematic overview of the characteristics of selected techniques to investigate

LIST OF PLATES

Experimental firings of different day raw materials (Sicily, Italy)

2 Photomicrographs of thin sections of medium-high fired sherds with

calcite (incompletely crossed polarized light, width of field 0.7 mm)

3 Late Bronze Age pottery sample 133 in (a) hand specimen and (band c) thin-section photomicrograph in plane polarized light

4 Photomicrographs of thin sections with a basalt-andesitic volcanic rock fragment under plane polarized light (a) and crossed polarized light (b)

5 Photomicrographs illustrating microstructural changes with increasing ceramic firing temperature (For explanations see text in Chapter27.)

6 MGR~analysis of six ceramic sherds, carrJed out to determine original firlng temperatures Sample 1 represents a briqueue cut from a model ceramic sample; samples 2.-6 represents archeological samples (For explanations see text in Chapter 27; photographs were taken with a macro lens by

M Baranowski.)

7 Structural MGR-analysisoftwo ceramic samples {Photographs taken

under a reflected light microscope) A~ pottery fragment originally fired

at Teq < 70d'C; B""' pottery waste) fragment over-fired at uoo-1150°C (For explanations see tex:t in Chapter 27; photographs were taken with a macro lens

by M Baranowski.)

8 MGR-analysis {8oo"C, 9oo"C, 120o'C) of five samples belonging to two MGR-groups-a fact which only becomes apparent after re-firing at uoo'C (For explanations see text in Chapter 27; photographs were taken with a macro lens by M Baranowski.)

9 Examples of matrix types (samples re-fired at uoo'C) of non-calcareous sherds (iron-rich red-firing or iron-poor whitish-firing) and of calcareous pottery (yellowish-greenish firing) (For explanations see text in Chapter q; photographs were taken with a macro lens by M Baranowski.)

Energy Dispersive Spectrometry

Electron Microprobe Analysis

Inductively Coupled Plasma

Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis

Optically Stimulated Luminescence

Particle Induced X- Ray Emission

parts per billion (10-9)

Plane Polarized Light

parts per million (10-6)

stable isotope ratio expressed relative to a standard

measure of isotopic composition relative to a mantle reservoir

-LisT oF CoNTRIBUTORS

Daniel Albero Santacreu is Assistant Lecturer in Prehistory and Archaeology at the University of the Balearic Islands (Spain) He has developed archaeometrical and techno-logical analysis of hand-made prehistoric pottery vessels from the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, Andalusia, and Ghana His current research concerns the role of technology in the inter~

pretation of ceramics and the application of concepts such as agency, habitus, ical choices, and identity in the study of ancient societies His most recent publication is

technolog-Materiality, Techniques and Society in the Pottery Production (De Gruyter Open)

Janet Ambers is a scientist in the Department of Conservation and Scientific Research at the British Museum She currently works mostly on the imaging of museum-related mate-rials, with a specific interest in radiography, and on the analysis of museum objects using various techniques but with an emphasis on Raman spectroscopy Her particular interests include pigment analysis with particular emphasis on the palettes of Ancient Egypt and the Middle East, the identification of gemstones, jades, and geological materials by Raman spec-troscopy, and the radiography of ceramics and other similar materials She also has a profes-sional interest in all forms of archaeological dating and analyses of human remains

Juan Antonio BarcelO is an Associate Professor of Prehistory at the Universitat Auto noma

de Barcelona (Spain) He carries out specialized research in archaeological techniques and theory, developing computer applications in archaeology, notably in the domains of spatial analysis, statistics, artificial intelligence, modeling, and computer-aided visualization He is the director of the Quantitative Archaeology Laboratory ( <http://grupsderecerca.uab.cat/ laqu/> ) He has directed and participated in archaeological projects in Spain, Portugal, Italy, Syria, Nicaragua, Ecuador, and Argentina

Hans Barnard is Adjunct Assistant Professor at the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Cultures and Assistant Researcher at the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, both at UCLA He has worked on sites in Armenia, Chile, Egypt, Iceland, Panama, Peru, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, and Yemen as archaeological surveyor, photographer, and ceramic analyst Currently he is involved in research projects investigating the interaction between the Tiwanaku and Wari polities in the Vitor Valley (near Arequipa, Peru), and between the Phoenician and Roman empires in Zita (near Zarzis, Tunisia)

Ina Berg is Senior Lecturer in Archaeology at the University of Manchester, UK Her main areas of research are ceramic studies, the archaeology of Bronze Age Greece, the Cyclades

in particular, and island studies While interested in all aspects of ceramics, her current research focus is predominantly on the application ofX-radiography to pottery to explore forming techniques as a means to understanding past potting traditions, workshop organi-zation, learning networks, and knowledge transfer

XXVi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Gulsebnem Bishop is a full-time CS!T faculty member and a program leader for the

Doctoral Program in Information Technology at Stratford University, VA She holds a

doc-torate degree in Computer Science and Information Systems from Pace University, NY,

where she was able to combine her two passions: computing and archaeology Her interests

are data analysis and interpretation, database development, and administration, as well as

future of data analysis She has worked at a number of not-for-profit organizations such as

the American Museum of Natural History, the Human Rights Campaign, and the National

Cathedral in New York City and Washington, D.C., specializing in database systems

devel-opment, administration, and management

Sophie Blain was a FNRS researcher at the University of Liege, Belgium Her researches

focused on medieval building archaeology and more particularly on dating methods applied

to building materials, such as dendrochronology on wood beams and luminescence (TL!

OSL) dating methods on ceramic building materials and mortar She worked on a number of

medieval churches in south-eastern England, northern France, Belgium, and northern Italy

Eugenio Bartolini is currently a member of CaSEs Research Group (Complexity and

Socio-Ecological Dynamics) as Research Fellow at the Department of Archaeology and

Anthropology, IMF-CSIC (Spanish National Research Council, Barcelona, Spain) and Visiting

Research Fellow at the Department of Humanities, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (Barcelona,

Spain) His main research interests and topics include the adoption and transmission of

cul-tural variants, the coevolution of culture and genes (Dual Inheritance Theory), the

develop-ment and application of quantitative methods in archaeology, archaeological theory, and the

prehistory of the Arabian Peninsula

Matthew T Boulanger is a Lecturer in the Department of Anthropology at Southern

Methodist University and a Research Associate at the Archaeometry Laboratory at the

University of Missouri Research Reactor He has published in Antiquity, American Antiquity,

Journal of Archaeological Science, and Archaeometry His research interests include

composi-tional analysis of archaeological materials, digital data management and preservation,

evo-lutionary archaeology, experimental archaeology, and Paleoindian lithic technology

Dennis Braekmans is Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University,

and Department of Materials Science, Delft University ofTechnology He runs the laboratory

for ceramic studies, where mineralogical and geochemical laboratory analysis is linked with

production studies, mechanical research, and ethnoarchaeological observation The current

research focus is geared to ancient ceramics from North Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean,

and the Near East Teaching activities include materials science, archaeometry, and

experi-mental archaeology

Jaume Buxeda i Garrig6s is Lecturer in Archaeology and Director of the Cultura Material

i Arqueometria UB (ARQUB) research unit at the Universitat de Barcelona His recent

work is mainly related to research projects in historical archaeology (ARCHSYMB and

TECNOLONIAL) designed to deepen our knowledge in aspects related to the interaction,

influence, and cultural change during the colonization process, through the archaeological

and archaeometric study of technical/technological impact, and issues of

technical/techno-logical traditions and change Other research interests are classical archaeology, the effect

of weathering, and the role and treatment of compositional data in archaeological research

-LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xxvii

Manuel Calvo Trias is Lecturer in Prehistory and Archaeology at the University of the Balearic Islands (Spain) He is head of the ArqueoUIB Research Group and PI of a research project focused on the Balearic Islands Prehistory, as well as the project Archaeology in the Upper White Volta basin (north-east of Ghana) His research is centered on the analysis

of material culture and technology He is co-author of 'l\cci6n tecnica, interacci6n social y pr<ictica cotidiana: propuesta interpretativa de la tecnologia" (Trabajos de Prehistoria 71) and

"Ceramic Transactions in a Multi-Ethnic Area (Upper East Ghana)" (Applied Clay Science

82)

Malgorzata Daszkiewicz works in collaboration with Warsaw University of Technology and, since 1994, with Arbeitsgruppe Archaeometrie (FU Berlin) In 1998 she set up her own company-ARCHEA-as a laboratory for archaeometric analysis and research, participat-ing in international projects with many institutions In 2009 and 2012 she was Senior Fellow

at the Cluster of Excellence TOPOl at FU Berlin, where she is now a part-time employee Her main research interests are in determining the technology and provenance of archaeological ceramics (using MGR-analysis, thin sections, WD-XRF and pXRF) as well as devising tech-niques for the classification of bulk ceramic finds and the development of methods for form-ing techniques and functional properties (she has created a joint databank with Gerwulf Schneider of G.30,ooo WD-XRF analyses)

Patrick Degryse is Professor of Archaeometry at the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Director of the Center for Archaeological Sciences at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (Belgium) His main research efforts focus on the use of mineral raw materials in ancient ceramic, glass, metal, and building stone production, using petrographical, mineralogical, and isotope geochemical techniques He teaches geology, geochemistry, archaeometry, and natural sciences in archaeology, is an A von Humboldt Fellow and European Research Council Grantee, and is active in several field projects in the eastern Mediterranean

Kim Duistermaat is guest researcher at the Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University Her interests include the organization of pottery production, and the study of seals and sealings Kim has worked and lived in Syria and Egypt and is currently resident in China

Laure Dussubieux is a Laboratory Scientist at The Field Museum's Integrative Research Center

)elmer W Eerkens is a Professor of Anthropology at the University of California, Davis, where he runs the Archaeometry Laboratory His research focuses on small-scale societies, the evolution of material technologies, 'and the reconstruction of ancient subsistence and settlement systems Towards this end, he has applied a number of archaeometric techniques, including gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, instrumental neutron activation analy-sis, stable isotope analysis, and luminescence dating to ceramic assemblages from Western North America and Peru

Kent D Fowler is an Associate Professor of Anthropology at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg> Canada Since 1996, his research interests have centered on the ceramic traditions

of southeastern Africa from archaeological and ethnographic perspectives His cal research has focused upon ceramic manufacture and use in first millennium AD farming societies of South Africa He has conducted long~term ethnographic research in Zulu and

archaeologi-xxviii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Swazi potting communities, examining how technical and social factors influence variation

in manufacture His recent research interest is in how petrographic and chemical analyses of ceramics are affected by potters' behaviors and the use of ceramics Representative publica-tions include "Zulu pottery production in the Lower Thukela Basin, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa" (zooS); "Clay acquisition and processing strategies during the first millennium AD in the Thukela River basin, South Africa: An ethnoarchaeological approach'' (zou); "Ceramic production in Swaziland" (2014); "Zulu ceramic production in the Phongolo River Basin, South Africa'' (2015)

jaime Garda Rossell<\ is Lecturer in Prehistory and Archaeology at the University of the Balearic Islands (Spain) His ethnoarchaeological research focuses on the analysis of pot-tery forming methods in several potter communities from Chile, Ecuador, Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, and Ghana He is co-author of Making Pots: El modelado de la ceramica y su poten- cial interpretativo (BAR International Series 2540, Archaeopress) with Manuel Calvo Mark Golitko is a visiting Assistant Professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Notre Dame, and a Research Associate at the Field Museum of Natural History

in Chicago He utilizes chemical methods to explore how human social networks evolve in response to environmental and social forces His field and laboratory research has spanned several regions, including Papua New Guinea, Europe, and the Americas His publications include "Mapping prehistoric social fields on the Sepik coast of Papua New Guinea: ceramic compositional analysis using laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry" (2012, Journal of Archaeological Science) and the book LBK Realpolitik: An Archaeometric Study of Conflict and Social Structure in the Belgian Early Neolithic (2015, Archaeopress) Alan F Greene is a Postdoctoral Scholar in the Department of Anthropology and Stanford Archaeology Center at Stanford University His field research based in Armenia focuses

on the habitual economic transactions, production chains, and value transfo'rmations

of Bronze Age and Iron Age communities in the South Caucasus (q5oo-8oo BC) He is also co-director of the Malting of Ancient Eurasia (MAE) Project, a research consortium involved in the radiographic, tomographic, and synchrotron radiation-based analysis of ceramic materials from across the Eurasian landmass He is co-editor, with Charles Hartley (University of Chicago), of a forthcoming volume on the structural analysis of archaeologi-cal pottery

Christopher Hall is Professor Emeritus and Professorial Fellow in the School of Engineering, University of Edinburgh He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering His research interests are in the chem-istry and physics of materials used in construction engineering Recent work includes synchrotron-based diffraction methods, scanning-probe microscopy of mineral/water reac-tions, and engineering analysis and chemistry in archaeology and building conservation Publications include Polymer Materials (1981, znd edn 1989 ); Water Transport in Brick, Stone and Concrete (with W D Hoff, 2002, znd edn 2012); Materials: A Very Short Introduction

(2014); and numerous scientific papers in professional journals

Mark E Hall is Assistant Field Manager of the Black Rock Field Office in the Winnemucca District of the Bureau of Land Management His research and field work has spanned sev-eral geographic areas, from California and the Great Basin, Ireland, japan, Mongolia, and

the Russian steppes He is the author of more than fifty research papers, many focusing on north-east Asian pottery production

Roberto Hazenfratz-Marks is a collaborator of the Archaeometry Group at the Nuclear and Energy Research Institute in Sao Paulo, directed by Dr Casimiro S Munita He con-centrates on the analysis of archaeological ceramics and geological material from Central Amazon He has experience with instrumental neutron activation analysis, X-ray diffrac-tion, optically stimulated luminescence dating, electron paramagnetic resonance, and mul-tivariate data analysis He is also Professor of Engineering

Robert B Heimann is Professor Emeritus of Applied Mineralogy and Materials Science

at Technische Universitat Bergakademie Freiberg, Germany From 1979 onward he worked

in Canada as a research associate (McMaster University), visiting professor (University

of Toronto), staff geochemist (Atomic Energy of Canada Limited), and research manager (Alberta Research Council) From 1993 to 2004 he was a full professor at TU Bergakademie Freiberg in Germany He has authored and coauthored more than 300 scientific publications including several books, and in 2001 was awarded the Georg- Agricola Medal of the German Mineralogical Society (DMG) Research activities and interests are in advanced ceramics, single crystal growth, and thermal spraying of environmental and biomedical coatings, as well as archaeometallurgy and archaeoceramics

Volker Hoeck is a retired professor He was Professor of Geology at Paris Lodron University

of Salzburg, Austria, and Associate Professor at Babe~-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania His research interests include geochemistry and petrography of magmatic and metamorphic rocks from the Alps, Carpathians, Dinarides, and Central Asia, as well as petrography and geochemistry of archaeoceramics His recent publications are "Insights into the EPR Characteristics of Heated Carbonate-rich Illitic Clay" (2014, Applied Clay Science); "Burnishing versus Smoothing in Ceramic Surface Finishing: A SEM Study" (2015, Archaeometry), and "Geochemistry of Neogene Quartz Andesites from the Oa> and the Gutai Mountains, Eastern Carpathians (Romania): A Complex Magma Genesis" (2014,

Mineralogy and Petrology)

Elisabeth Holmqvist works as an Academy of Finland Postdoctoral Fellow at the Department of Philosophy, History, Culture and Art Studies, University of Helsinki Her research interests deal with ancient technologies and exchange systems, and geochemi-cal provenancing of archaeological materials by ED-XRF, SEM-EDS, PIXE, ICP-MS, and INAA Holmqvist has worked on archaeological ceramics from the Near East, Europe, and Latin America In her PhD (UCL Institute of Archaeology, 2010), Holmqvist concentrated

on Byzantine-Islamic pottery manufacture and trade in the Near East, while her current research focuses on Scandinavian and Baltic potting traditions and inter-regional ceramic exchange from the Neolithic into medieval times

Alice M W Hunt is a Assistant Research Scientist at the Center for Applied Isotope Studies, University of Georgia Her PhD in archaeological materials analysis developed cathodolu-minescence spectrometry of quartz as a method for differentiating raw material sources in fine-grained ceramics Currently, her research focuses on developing analytical calibrations and protocols for bulk chemical characterization of cultural materials (ceramics, anthropo-genic sediments, copper alloys, and obsidian) by portable XRF Recent publications include

XXX LIST OF CONTRlBUTORS

"Portable XRF analysis of archaeological sediments and ceramics" (Journal of Archaeological

Science, 2015) and a monograph Palace Ware across the Neo-Assyrian Imperial Landscape:

Social Value and Semiotic Meaning (E.) Brill)

Carina Ionescu is Professor at Geology Department at Babe.-Bolyai University of

Cluj-Napoca, Romania, and Associate Professor at Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University,

Tartarstan, Russia Her research interests focus on archaeoceramics and ophiolite

petrol-ogy and geochemistry Her recent publications include "Burnishing versus Smoothing

in Ceramic Surface Finishing: A SEM Study" (2015, Archaeometry); "Insights into the

Raw Materials and Technology Used to Produce Copper Age Ceramics in the Southern

Carpathians (Romania)" (2016, Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences)

Marisol Madrid i Fernandez is a Researcher at the Cultura Material i Arqueometria UB

(ARQUB) research unit at the Universitat de Barcelona Her work focuses on the application

of analytical techniques to the study of archaeological materials, especially ceramics She has

participated in more than forty research projects highlighting the current TECNOLONIAL

project on historical archaeology and archaeometry She is author/co-author of more than

fifty publications and has been co-organizer of two scientific international conferences She

has had longlasting activity in the field of classical archaeology in several excavations,

espe-cially in the research project at the Roman town of Cosa, Italy, leading the study of Roman

pottery and its archaeometric characterization

Marta Mariotti Lippi focuses on archaeobotany, palynology, and reproductive biology She

has carried out archaeobotanical investigations at sites in Italy (Pompeii and Vesuvian area,

Paestum, Tuscany) and abroad (Russia, Czech Republic, jordan, Lybia) Since 2001 she has

cooperated in research projects in the "Land of Frankincense" UNESCO site ofSumhuram/

Khor Rori, and at Salut, Sultanate of Oman

Lara Maritan was, between 1999 and 2005, a visiting scholar at the University of Glasgow

(UK) and the University of Cardiff (UK), funded by scholarships from the Gini Foundation,

the Italian Society of Mineralogy and Petrology (SIMP), and the Accademia Nazionale dei

Lincei/Royal Society From 2003 she was a postdoctoral research assistant at the University

ofPadova before joining the faculty in the Department of Geosciences as an assistant

profes-sor in georesources and minero-petrographic applications for the environment and cultural

heritage (GEO/o9) in 2007

Ana LuisaMartinez-Carillo is a researcher at the Research Institute oflberian Archaeology,

University ofJaen She is a specialist in the application of new technologies in

archaeologi-cal analysis, in particular in ceramic studies, and has also participated in several regional,

national, and European research projects focused on three-dimensional modeling,

integra-tion of datasets, and on-line disseminaintegra-tion of the cultural heritage

Leah D Mine is an Associate Professor in the College of Liberal Arts at Oregon State

University, and INAA Research Coordinator at the Oregon State University Archaeometry

Laboratory

Giuseppe Montana has been Associate Professor at the University of Palermo since 2005

His re!earch activity covers topics in the field of mineralogy and petrography applied to

cultural heritage (archaeological ceramics, natural and artificial stones) Significant recent

,

-LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS XXXi

publications include "Characterization of Clayey Raw Materials for Ceramic Manufacture

in Ancient SicilY:' Applied Clay Science, 53 (2011): 476-488; 'An Original Experimental Approach to Study the Alteration and/or Contamination of Archaeological Ceramics Originated by Seawater Burial;' Periodico di Mineralogia, 83 (2014): 89-120; "Different Methods for Soluble Salt Removal Tested on Late-Roman Cooking Ware from a Submarine Excavation at the Island ofPantelleria (Sicily, Italy);' Journal of Cultural Heritage, 15(2014): 403-413

Noemi S Miiller is Scientific Research Officer at the Fitch Laboratory of the British School

at Athens She has held postdoctoral positions at NCSR Demokritos, where her research focused on mechanical and thermal properties of archaeological ceramics, as well as in Nicosia, Cyprus, and Barcelona, Spain She is interested in applying analytical methods to investigate inorganic archaeological artifacts and materials, focusing on the study of prov-enance and technology and with a special interest in archaeological ceramics Her research also examines the affordance of utilitarian ceramics, focusing on cooking vessels, using material testing to explore the influence of technological choices in manufacture on material properties

Pasquino Pallecchi is Adjunct Professor at the University of Florence and Head of the Laboratory of Archaeological Heritage in Tuscany, Italy

Patrick S Quinn is an archaeological materials scientist working on ceramics and related artifacts from a range of different periods and regions including prehistoric and later Britain, pre-contact California, and the prehistoric Aegean His early research focused on the occur-rence of microfossils within ancient ceramic pastes and their research potential in terms of pottery provenance and technology on Minoan Crete He subsequently worked on the pal-aeontology and ecology of microfossil-producing organisms before rejoining the University

of Sbeffield, then the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, as a permanent member of the research staff, undertaking research, teaching, and Consultancy on archaeo-logical ceramic analysis

Marcia A Rizzutto has been a Professor at the Physics Institute of the University of Sao Paulo since 2001 She is also the coordinator of the Research Center of Applied Physics to the Study of Artistic and Historical Cultural Heritage of the University of Sao Paulo Since

2003 she has been devoted to the use of applied physics to the study of cultural heritage objects connected with different areas such as archaeology, history, art history, paleontol-ogy, chemistry, conservation, and restoration As coordinator of the research group she has

a wider investigation program using non~destructive physics analyses in different museum collections of the University of Sao Paulo, in partnership with teachers/researchers from the museum's institutions

Valentine Roux is Director of Research at the CNRS, Nanterre, France Her work bines methodological research on technical skills and an anthropological approach to ceramic assemblages, archaeological research on the history of technology and people in the Southern Levant, and ethnoarchaeological research in India on specialization and dif-fusion of potting techniques Selected recent publications include a handbook, in collabo-ration with M.-A Courty, entitled Des ceramiques et des hommes: Decoder les assemblages archeologiques (2016); an edited issue of Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory (2013,

com-20/2), with Courty, entitled "Discontinuities and Continuities: Theories, Methods and Proxies for an Historical and Sociological Approach to Evolution of Past Societies"; and

an edited issue of Paleorient (2013, 39!1) with Braun, entitled "The Transition from Late

Chalcolithic to Early Bronze in the Southern Levant: Continuity and/or Discontinuity?':

of archaeometry, from 1980 to 2003 at the Institute of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry (Arbeitsgruppe Archaeometrie), and currently as a research associate at the Cluster of Excellence Topoi at the Free University of Berlin His main focus is on chemical and min-eralogical analysis of archaeological ceramics and the interpretation of data in archaeologi-cal terms His research interests encompass Roman pottery in Germany, Hellenistic to Late Antique pottery in the Mediterranean region, and various projects on Neolithic to medieval pottery in Europe, Mesopotamia, and Sudan (he has created a joint databank of qo,ooo WD-XRF pottery analyses with M Daszkiewicz)

Prabodh Shirvalkar is currently working as an associate professor in the department

of Archaeology, Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Pune, India His research interest focuses on the Harappan Civilization, particularly in regards to ceramic technology, provenance, and trade networks At present, he is working on creating a model for the rural economy of Harappans In addition, he has expertise in field archaeology and the application of processualism

Shlomo Shoval is Professor of Earth Sciences at the Open University of Israel He is also Guest Professor at the Institute of Earth Sciences of the Hebrew University of jerusalem and Visiting Scientist at the Institut Lumiere Matiere ofUniversite Claude Bernard Lyon-1, France He is an expert in the analysis of archaeological ceramics, ceramic raw materials, and clay minerals by infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and other scientific methods (LA-lCP-MS, XRF) Among his current research projects are studies of the technologies used in manufac-ture and in paint decoration of Levan tine Bronze and Iron Age ceramics

decade, starting with geological samples and soon moving to archaeologically relevant rials such as pumice, obsidian, and later ceramics He is interested in the statistical analysis

mate-of the gathered data and in the intercomparability mate-of different analytical methods Recent publications include "NAA and XRF analyses and magnetic susceptibility measurement of

Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets" (Scienze dell'Antiquita, 2011); "Raising the temper-fl· spot analysis of temper inclusions in experimental ceramics" (Journal ofRadioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 2011); and "Volcanic glass under fire-a comparison of three comple-

mentary analytical methods" (X-RaySpectrometry, 2013)

Manfredo H Tabacniks is a full professor at the Physics Institute of the University of Sao Paulo In 1994 he served as a postdoctoral researcher for two years at the IBM Almaden Research Center, San jose, California, on the application of ion beam methods (PIXE and RBS) for tbe analysis of thin films Since 1996 he has been head of the Ion Beam Analysis facility of the Institute of Physics at USP His main research interests deal with ion beam methods for advanced material analysis and for the modification of materials

jeremy Taylor took up a Leverhulme Research Fellowship at the School of Archaeology, University of Leicester, in 1999, before being appointed a Lecturer in Archaeology in 2001

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xxxiii

He is currently a director of the major field project at Burrough Hill, Leicestershire His research interests center on social change in Iron Age Britain and the Western Roman prov-inces through study of their rural landscapes, and on interrelationships between theory and method in survey-based archaeological research, such as geophysics, geochemistry, and aerial survey

MichaelS Tite was, before retiring, the Edward Hall Professor of Archaeological Science and Director of the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art at the University

of Oxford, where he is now Professor Emeritus and Fellow of Linacre College Formerly he served as Keeper of the Research Laboratory at the British Museum, and has been a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries since 1977-The underlining theme of his research during the past thirty years has been the study of the technology involved in the production of (1) faience and related early vitreous materials from Egypt and the Near East, and (2) glazed pottery from the Bronze Age through the Roman period in the Near East, Europe, the Islamic world, and China Jolien Van Pevenage is currently a PhD candidate in the Raman Spectroscopy Research Group She is interested in the application of Raman spectroscopy to the study of ceramic artifacts for their identification and classification in order to define, for example, the ori-gin or the composition of the materials and production techniques Her research combines the use of Raman spectroscopy with X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy and advanced data processing methods Her work is presented at international conferences and is published in leading scientific journals

Peter Vandenabeele was appointed as research professor in the Department of Archaeology

at Ghent University, where he applies his analytical skills to the study of archaeological and artistic objects His research focuses mainly on the application of Raman spectroscopy in art analysis He has authored more than a hundred research papers on Raman spectroscopy and its application in archaeometry, along with several book chapters and conference pre-

sentations Recently, he has published, together with Howell Edwards, Selected Topics in AnalyticalArchaeometry (RSC Publishing, 2012)

Yona Waksman is a Senior Researcher at the French National Research Center (CNRS)

in Lyon She specializes in archaeometric approaches to medieval ceramics in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea, through provenance and technological studies Her publi-cations include major sites such as Constantinople/Istanbul, and lay new foundations for the investigation of economic, cultural, and social phenomena in the Byzantine world and the medieval Middle East

Ian K Whitbread read Archaeology and Geology at the University of Bristol before taking a research fellowship at the Fitch Laboratory, British School at Athens, Greece Formerly he was a Principal Research Scientist at the Center for Materials Research in Archaeology and Ethnology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA, and then Director of the Fitch Laboratory He joined the School of Archaeology and Ancient History, University of Leicester, in 2001 His current research interests lie in the analysis of ancient ceramic materials with respect to issues of trade/ exchange and the socially embedded nature

under-of technology

Bettina A Wiegand has long-term experience in isotope geochemistry at the University

of Goettingen, Germany, and Stanford University, USA Application of isotope methods

xxxiv :UST OF CONTRIBUTORS

to various research fields include ceramic provenance studies, human migration studies,

and hydrogeological and environmental research Related publications include "Strontium

Isotopic Evidence for Prehistoric Transport of Gray-Ware Ceramic Materials in the Eastern

Grand Canyon Region, USA;' Geoarchaeology 26 (2011): 189-218; and "Reconstructing

Middle Horizon Mobility Patterns on the Coast of Peru through Strontium Isotope

Analysis;' (Journal of Archaeological Science 26 (2009): 157-165)

Ian P Wilkinson was a principal scientist with the British Geological Survey before retiring,

and is now an Honorary Research Associate at both the BGS and the University of Leicester

He is a specialist in Mesozoic and Cenozoic-Recent ostracods and foraminifera, working on

mapping, hydrocarbons, geohazards, and palaeoenvironmental and archaeological projects

Although focusing principally on the UK, he also has experience in, for example, Ecuador,

USA, Antarctica, Hong Kong, the Persian Gulf, Papua New Guinea, Armenia, and Russia

Mark Williams is Professor of Geology at the University of Leicester, where he researches

climate and environmental change reflected in the fossil record He has worked at the

Universities of Frankfurt, Lyon, and Portsmouth, and for the British Geological Survey and

the British Antarctic Survey He has a strong interest in the geology of the Arabian Peninsula

and has consulted for Saudi Aramco

-!ill

!r

PART I

···

INTRODUCTION

CERAMIC is one of the most complex and ubiquitous archaeomaterials, occurring around

the world at prehistoric through industrial sites and used to fashion everything from

resi-dences and technological installations to utilitarian wares and decorative/votive figurines

It is not simply the range of cultures and functions that ceramics serve but the diversity in materials and manufacture technology that makes archaeological ceramic analysis as chal-lenging as it is essentiaL

In this volume we address the sociocultural, geochemical, and mineralogical

complex-ity inherent in archaeological ceramic analysis and provide insight into the uncertainties

by providing concrete guidelines for designing rigorous research strategies and ing sophisticated and answerable anthropological research questions Part II is dedicated

develop-to issues related develop-to designing ceramic research and evaluating the varied types of data this research generates jaume Buxeda i Garrig6s and Marisol Madrid i Fernandez (Chapter 3)

outline the two essential types of research for archaeological ceramic analysis, advancing

the discipline and answering archaeological questions, and provide tools and guidelines for approaching each In Chapter 4, Roberto Hazenfratz Marks discusses how to identify and

report the uncertainty inherent in ceramic analysis with particular emphasis on interpreting

geochemical data In Chapter s, Gulsebnem Bishop discusses the types of data generated in archaeological ceramic analysis, the strengths and weaknesses of each, and the appropri-ate model/statistical tools for describing and analyzing this data Many of the most inter-esting and important anthropological questions involve comparing ceramic datasets, often from different excavations or laboratories and separated by decades In Chapter 6, Matthew Boulanger offers insight into working with these datasets and how to preserve data for future analysis

Part Ill, Foundational Concepts, provides a detailed discussion of, and recommends best practices for, the definition, description, and illustration of archaeological ceram-ics In Chapter 7, Giuseppe Montana defines ceramic raw materials and describes their

compositional and physical properties, such as plasticity and swelling, and how these erties are manipulated by human behavior Chapters 8 and 9 both investigate the social and economic organization of ceramic manufacture: Valentine Raux (Chapter 8) evalu-ates ceramic manufacture using the chaine operatoire approach, while Kim Duistermaat (Chapter 9) offers a relational approach to ceramic manufacture based on network analy-sis models Both approaches discuss how to locate the technical behaviors associated with ceramic manufacture within the socioeconomic and cultural constraints in operation Yona Waksman tackles ceramic provenance in Chapter 10, providing unambiguous defini-tions and practical guidelines for forming production and/or compositional groups within

prop-a cerprop-amic prop-assemblprop-age In Chprop-apter 11, Gerwulf Schneider details the geochemical and eralogical uncertainty created by alteration of archaeological ceramics during their use-life and as a result of post-depositional processes, and discusses methods for identifying these changes during analysis

min-1be last three chapters in Part III provide practical skills, definitions, and guidelines for the description and illustration of archaeological ceramic artifacts Daniel Albero Santacreu, Manuel Calvo Trias, and jaime Garcia Rossell6 (Chapter 12) discuss formal classification and analysis of ceramics, offering universal definitions and insight for the interpretation of for-mal data, while remaining sensitive to the practical and cultural factors influencing vessel shape and size Ian Whit bread (Chapter 13) similarly establishes guidelines for best practice

in describing ceramic fabrics both in hand specimen (macroscopic analysis) and thin section (microscopic analysis), along with methodologies for preparation of samples and reporting/ publishing fabric descriptions In Chapter 14, Prabodh Shirvalkar provides a primer for con-structing accurate and informative analytical illustration of archaeological ceramics The remainder of the volume is dedicated to the analytical techniques used in archaeo-logical ceramic analysis and is organized broadly by anthropological questions There are many ways in which these techniques could be categorized (see Chapter 35 on Typology and Classification), especially since each technique or method provides data relevant to more than one line of inquiry and most anthropological questions require more than one type of data (see Table 1.1) However, for reasons both practical and functional we present each ana-lytical technique according to the fundamental anthropological question to which it most often or significantly contributes These four fundamental research areas are Provenance (Part IV), Manufacture (Part V), Function (Part VI), and Date (Part VII) Each technique- or method-specific chapter includes its scientific and/or theoretical background, discussion of practical issues, such as cost and sample preparation, and case studies emphasizing the util-ity of the technique in addressing anthropological questions of provenance When possible, guidelines for best practice of collecting and interpreting the data are provided

Ceramic provenance is typically evaluated using compositional data In Part IV, bulk chemical, phase, and mineralogical analysis, as well as micropalaeontological analysis, are discussed Chemical methods include chapters on isotope analysis by Bettina Wiegand (Chapter 18), X-ray fluorescence by Robert Heimann (Chapter 19) and Mark Hall (Chapter 20), handheld portable energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry by Elisabeth Holmqvist (Chapter 21), particle induced X-ray emission spectrometry by Marcia RiZ2utto and Manfredo Tabacniks (Chapter 22), inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrom-etry by Mark Golitko and Laure Dussubieux (Chapter 23), neutron activation analysis by Leah Mine and johannes Sterba (Chapter 24), and synchrotron radiation by Alan Greene

INTRODUCTION 5

Table 1.1 Analytical methods included in this Handbook, and which of the four

primary research questions they contribute toward answering

(Chapter 25) Mineralogical and phase analysis methods include chapters on petrography

by Dennis Braekmans and Patrick Degryse (Chapter 15), electron probe microanalysis by Carina Ionescu and Volker Hoeck (Chapter 17), and X-ray diffraction by Robert Heimann (Chapter 19) Micropalaeontology (Chapter 16) is written by Ian Wilkinson, Patrick Quinn, Mark Williams, jeremy Taylor, and Ian Whitbread

In Part V, methods and techniques on ceramic manufacture include chapters on nography (Chapter 26) by Kent Fowler, experimental firing and re-firing (Chapter 27) by

eth-Malgorzata Daszkiewicz and Lara Maritan, X-ray radiography (Chapter 30) by Ian Berg and janet Ambers, and organic inclusions by Marta Mariotti Lippi and Pasquino Pallecchi (Chapter 31) Chapters on Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (Chapter 28) by Shlomo Shoval, and Raman spectroscopy (Chapter 29) by )alien Van Pevenage and Peter Vandenabeele, are also included in Part V because they can provide valuable information about mineralogical alteration in ceramic fabrics and surface treatments

Vessel function can be assessed from the formal attributes and performance teristics of a vessel or artifact, as well as any organic residues preserved on their surfaces Therefore, Part VI includes discussion of morphometries (Chapter 32) by Ana Martinez-Carillo and juan Antonio Barcelo, mechanical properties (Chapter 33) by Noemi Suzanne Muller, and residue analysis (Chapter 34) by Hans Barnard and )elmer W Eerkens

charac-Part VII investigates the direct and indirect or relative dating of ceramics, and includes chapters on typology and classification (Chapter 35) by Eugenio Bertolini, and direct dating techniques of luminescence and rehydroxylation dating in a chapter by Sophie Blain and Christopher Hall (Chapter 36)

a better understanding of the behavior of the people who produced, distributed, and used these ceramics

Reconstruction of the production technology of archaeological ceramics involves the investigation of raw materials, tools, energy sources, and techniques used in the procure-ment and preparation of the clay, forming of the pot, and its surface treatment, decoration, and firing Such information can be inferred from the observed macrostructure, microstruc-ture, and chemical and mineral/phase compositions of the ceramics The reconstruction of distribution (i.e provenance studies) involves trying to establish, on the basis of thin-section petrography and/or chemical composition, whether ceramics were locally produced or imported, and if the latter, to identify the production center and/or source of the raw mate-riaL The determination of the use to which ceramic vessels were put involves their examina-tion for surface wear and the presence o.f soot deposits, the analysis of surviving organic residues, and the investigation of their physical properties

In the interpretation of the reconstructed production technology of archaeological ceramics, the primary questions that need to be considered are why ceramics were first adopted for use in different parts of the world, and why, when adopted, a particular produc-tion technology was chosen The interpretation of the reconstructed distribution of ceramics

is concerned both with trying to determine patterns of trade or exchange away from any identified production center or source of raw material, and the underlying sociocultural rea-sons for that pattern

OVERVIEW OF HISTORY

Leaving aside isolated examples of scientific research into ancient ceramics in the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth centuries, a coherent and continuing program of such research really only began in the 1950s This occurred as part of the emergence of the overall field of archaeological science which, at that time, included the application of geophysical prospec-tion and scientific dating methods to archaeology as well as the scientific study of the full range of archaeological artifacts (Aitken, 1961) It is generally considered that the starting point for present-day scientific research into archaeological ceramics was the groundbreak-ing volume by Anna Shepard (1956) entitled Ceramics for the Archaeologist However, two further crucial, and more or less contemporary, developments were the founding in 1955 of the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art at the University of Oxford with E T (Teddy) Hall as its first Director, and the beginning of instrumental neutron acti-vation analysis (INAA) of ceramics at the Brookhaven National Laboratory (Long Island, New York) under the direction of(Ed) Sayre (Sayre and Dodson, 1957)

The Oxford Research Laboratory, which was founded through the combined efforts of a physicist (Lord Cherwell) and an archaeologist (Professor Christopher Hawkes), went on

to become a focus for archaeological science, or archaeometry as it was termed in Oxford, both in the United Kingdom (UK) and internationally, 1hus, the publication Archaeometry,

which was started in 1958 as the Bulletin of the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, went on to become an international research journal Similarly, the train-ing course in 1962, and subsequent annual reunions, organized for archaeologists who had purchased proton gradiometers from the Laboratory, went on to become the International Symposium for Archaeometry, initially held annually, but now held biennially, of which the 40th Symposium was held in Los Angeles in 2014

The continuing development of archaeological science, including scientific research into archaeological ceramics, has depended, first, on the provision of funding for research spe-cifically into aspects of this new discipline, and second, on the inclusion of the teaching of archaeological science in university archaeology degree courses Although such crucial developments bave now occurred, to a varying extent, throughout the world, the UK has always been at the forefront in this respect Thus, in 1976, the UK Science and Engineering Research Council established a Science-based Archaeology Committee which was provided with funds to support the development of new scientific techniques and approaches to the study of archaeological material, and such research funding has continued in the UK in one form or another up to the present day Furthermore, during the 1970s, the University of Bradford introduced one-year MA and three-year BTech courses in archaeological science, and now, few students in the UK can emerge from an undergraduate archaeology course without some knowledge of archaeological science, and many can be classed as true archae-ological scientists

As discussed in detail in the next section in this chapter, progress in the reconstruction

of the life-cycle of archaeological ceramics has depended mainly on the development and availability of new methods of scientific investigation.ln contrast, progress in the interpreta-tion of the life-cycle of archaeological ceramics has been, in large part, the result ofimproved communication and collaboration between the scientists involved in the reconstruction,

and archaeologists from across the discipline, including field archaeologists, theoretical archaeologists, and ethnoarchaeologists

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CERAMIC LIFE-CYCLE

In her book Ceramics for the Archaeologist, Shepard (1956) provided a description of the raw materials and processes involved in the production of archaeological ceramics, together with

a summary of their physical properties She then went on to describe how the raw materials used might be identified and production processes revealed The analytical methods avail-able to Shepard were essentially limited to binocular microscopy, petrographic microscopy, and optical emission spectroscopy (OES)

As evident from the contents of the current volume, the range of analytical tools able for the study of archaeological ceramics has increased dramatically during the subse-quent fifty or so years (Pollard et al., 2007) Of these, scanning electron microscopy (SEM),

avail-a ravail-ange of methods for the determinavail-ation of chemicavail-al composition, avail-and orgavail-anic residue analysis, using gas chromatography in combination with mass spectrometry (GC-MS), have had wide-ranging applications In addition, there are a number of new analytical techniques which, by their nature, have had a more limited application for the study of archaeological ceramics

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Examination of polished sections using SEM has provided extremely valuable tion on the production technology of archaeological ceramics, supplementary to that provided by optical microscopy (Tite, 1992) This is, in part, because the SEM provides a higher magnification (typically used in the range xwo to xsoo) However, more impor-tantly, either an analytical SEM with attached X-ray spectrometer or an electron micro-probe (EMP) can determine quantitatively the chemical composition of the different phases or components present For example, the extent of vitrification in earthenware bodies can provide an estimate of the firing temperature, and the composition of the high temperature phases observed in porcelain bodies can provide information about the raw materials used in their production Additionally, in cross-section, it has been possible to determine, for the first time, the composition of a slip or glaze entirely separately from that

informa-of the underlying ceramic body It has ·thus been possible to distinguish between lime, high lead, and lead-alkali glazes (Tile et al., 1998), and identify the different opaci-fiers and colorants used

alkali-During the 1980s, the application of SEM analysis to archaeological ceramics facilitated research into a wide range of ceramics ( earthenwares, stonewares, porcelains, and quartz-paste bodies), which resulted in significant advances in our understanding of their pro-duction technologies Pioneers in this research include Kingery and Vandiver (1986) at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Tite and colleagues (Tile, 1992) at the British Museum