History of early stone sculpture at mathura, CA 150 BCE 100 CE by sonya rhie quintanilla

History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura, Ca 150 BCE 100 CE STUDIES IN ASIAN ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY CONTINUATION OF STUDIES IN SOUTH ASIAN CULTURE EDITED BY JAN FONTEIN VOLUME XXV SONYA RHIE QUINTANIL.

HISTORY OF EARLY STONE SCULPTURE AT MATHURA, CA 150 BCE-100 CE

HISTORY OF EARLY STONE SCULPTURE AT MATHURA,

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie.

History of early stone sculpture at Mathura, ca 150 BCE-100 CE / Sonya Rhie

Quintanilla ; with a preface by Pramod Chandra.

p cm — (Studies in Asian art and archaeology, ISSN 1380-782X ; v 25)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-13: 978-90-04-15537-4

ISBN-10: 90-04-15537-6 (hardback : alk paper)

1 Sculpture, Mathura 2 Sculpture, Ancient—India—Mathura 3 Stone

carving—India—Mathura 4 Decoration and ornament, Architectural—India—Mathura I.

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List of Figures xiii

Preface by Pramod Chandra xxxvii

Acknowledgements xxxix

List of Abbreviations xli Introduction xliii Chapter One Evidence for Stone Sculpture at Mathura Before the Mid-Second Century BCE 1

Findings from Archaeological Excavations 1

Textual Evidence 1

Sculptural Evidence 5

Chapter Two Abstracted Forms: The ‘Bharhut Style’ of the Mathura Region (Ca 150 BCE) 8

Dating the ‘Bharhut Style’ 8

The Dhanabhuti Inscription 10

Date of the Bharhut Style 13

Architectural Sculpture 14

Railing Pillar with Yak ßì from Mehrauli 15

Bas Relief Panel with a Male Cauri Bearer 19

Rail Post with St ùpa Worship 20

Fragments of Two Tympana 21

Baluster with Two Addorsed Female Worshippers 22

Crossbar Medallion with Elephant and Riders 23

Iconic Statues 24

Yakßa Ma»ibhadra from Parkham and Yakßa from Baroda Village 26

Yakßa from Palwal 32

Standing N àga 33

Chapter Three Iconographic Diversification and Narrative Maturation (Ca 120–75 BCE) 36

Architectural Sculpture: Gateways 37

Gateway Architraves 37

Architrave from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà: Centaurs Worship a Jaina Stùpa 38

Architrave from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà: Dance of Nìlàñjanà and the Renunciation of °ßabhanàtha 41

Architrave from Katrà: Brahmins with Pots in a Sacred Precinct 47

Gateway Balusters 50

Baluster from Bayana: Male Worshippers 51

Balusters from Rànipur: Male Worshippers 51

Gateway Brackets 51

Brackets from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà: Yakßì on Ga»a and Yakßì on Elephant Protome 52

Gateway Pillars 53

Tora»a Pillars from Amin: Mithuna and Yakßa 54

Kàmaloka Pillar 55

Doorjambs 59

Doorjambs with Mithunas 60

Architectural Sculpture: Railings 61

Rail Posts 61

Rail Post with a Yak ßì Tying Her Sash and a Narrative Roundel 61

Rail Post from Hathìn: Yakßa and Roundel with the Dream of Màyà 65

Rail Post from Bhadas: Yak ßa and Non-Narrative Roundel 67

Rail Post from Kuwanwaligali: Cauri Bearer 67

Corner Post from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà: Veneration of a Lion Pillar, Musicians and Dancer, Amorous Scenes 68

Upright with Mithuna and Female Onlooker 71

Fragmentary Post with Caityav ‰kßa 72

Rail Post with a Horse and Rider in a Medallion 73

Railing Crossbars 73

Crossbar with Bodhighara 74

Crossbar with Naramakara and Duck 74

Crossbar with Horse and Female Rider 75

Crossbar with the Head of a Yak ßa 75

Coping Stones 76

Unidentified Architectural Fragments 76

Bas Relief Depicting the Va »»upatha Jàtaka 76

Man Driving a Bull 78

Relief of a Kinnara Bearing Offerings 79

Flying Ardhaph àlaka Monk and Kinnara 79

Iconic Statues 81

Bas Relief of a Yak ßa Holding a Sword and a Worshipper 82

Agni and Yak ßa Holding a Sword, from Bharana Kalan 84

Yakßa from Hariparvat-ˇìlà 87

Two Yak ßas from Noh 88

Yakßa from Virabai and Mathura Museum Yakßa 90

Head of a Yak ßa in the Cleveland Museum of Art 90

Yakßì from Jhingki-Nagara 91

Balaràma from Jansuti 92

Possible Balaràma from Nanakpur 93

Pàr≤vanàtha and Attendant 93

Chapter Four Àyàgapa†as: Defining the Framework 97

Characteristics and Classification of Àyàgapa†as 97

Original Context for the Installation of Àyàgapa†as 98

Function of Àyàgapa†as 100

Chronology 103

Ca 150–75 BCE 103

•imitrà Àyàgapa†a 103

Okara»a Àyàgapa†a; Àyàgapa†a Fragment with Running Animals; Àyàgapa†a Fragment with Knotted Rhizome, Sthàpana, and Nandyàvarta 105

Ca 75–37 BCE 107

Fragment of -tusikà Àyàgapa†a 107

Bhikhu Phagula •ilà 108

Shimla Museum Àyàgapa†a, Àyàgapa†a Fragment with Cakra 109

Year Twenty-One Àyàgapa†a 111

Àyàgapa†a Fragment with A≤oka Flowers 113

Ca 20 BCE 114

Dhanamitra Àyàgapa†a, Màtharaka Àyàgapa†a 114

Ferenc Hopp Museum Àyàgapa†a 118

Àyàgapa†a Fragment with Overlapping Rosette or Palmette Border 119

The Reign of •o∂àsa: Ca 15 CE 119

Amohini Àyavati 120

Pàr≤vanàtha Àyàgapa†a 123

Nàádighoßa Àyàgapa†a 124

British Museum Àyàgapa†a 126

Ca 25–50 CE 126

Sihanaádikà Àyàgapa†a and Acalà Àyàgapa†a 126

Ca 75–100 CE 129

Chaubiàpàdà Àyàgapa†a 129

Amoghadatta Àyàgapa†a 134

Àyàgapa†a Fragment with Grapevine Border 134

•ivaya≤a Àyàgapa†a, Vasu •ilàpa†a 135

Laghaka Àyàgapa†a 138

Second and Third Centuries CE 138

Jìvanàádà Àyàgapa†a 138

Ka»a Plaque 139

Ko¬iya Ga»a Àyàgapa†a 140

Summary 140

Chapter Five The Emergence of Naturalism (Ca 50–20 BCE) 142

Architectural Sculpture 144

Male Figure Riding a Griffin 144

Architrave with Makara, Dragon-Legged Composite Figure, and Lotus Rhizome 145

Coping Stone with a Seated Couple and a Walled Garden 146

Ka†hika Pillar Relief Panels 148

Añjalì Pillar Fragment Relief Panels 149

Gàyatrì-ˇìlà Doorjamb 150

Jankhat Doorjambs 152

Yakßa and Yakßì on the Railing Pillars of Ka†hika 154

Yakßì on a Rail Post in the Bharat Kala Bhavan 159

Añjalì Pillar Yakßì 160

Yakßì in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art 160

Woman Riding a Griffin 162

Female Votary from Faizabad 162

Camu»∂à-ˇìlà Capital 166

Chapter Six Sculpture of Mathura During the Reign of •o∂àsa (Ca 15 CE) 168

Architectural Sculpture 172

Tora»a Architrave Fragment from Katra 172

Brooklyn Museum Ardhaphàlakas 174

National Museum Tympanum 177

Balahastinì Doorjamb 184

Govindnagar °ßya≤‰«ga Pillar 187

Corner Pillar in the Norton Simon Museum 194

Ìsàpur Railing: Lokapàlas Offer Alms Bowls to the Buddha •àkyamuni 199

Vasu Doorjamb 205

Morà Doorjamb 206

Three Fragmentary Relief Panels 206

Iconic Statues 208

Akrùr-ˇìlà Devatà 208

V‰ß»i Heros from Mora 211

Agni in the Bharat Kala Bhavan 214

Standing Male Deity 216

Summary 217

Chapter Seven Antedating Kanißka: Mathura Sculptures of Ca 50–100 CE 219

Architectural Sculpture 221

Buddhist Tympanum in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts 221

Coping Stone Depicting the Romaka J àtaka 225

Panel from a Railing Pillar Depicting the Buddha Addressing a King 227 Fragment of an Architrave with Male Figures and Female Elephant Riders 228

Naigameßin Architrave 229

Indra≤aila Architrave 233

Iconic Statues 238

Buddha with Indra and Brahmà on the Pedestal 238

Harvard Buddha Triad 240

Nàga 242

Standing Male Figure from Gane≤arà 243

Yak ßì in the Cleveland Museum of Art 244

Mahàvìra Pedestal 246

Chapter Eight Concluding Remarks 249

Appendix I: Inscription Transcriptions, Translations, and Notes 254

Appendix II: List of Àyàgapa†as with Inscriptions and Epigraphical Notes 268

Occupations Mentioned in the Àyàgapa†a Inscriptions 286

Proper Names Mentioned in the Àyàgapa†a Inscriptions 286

Dates Found in Àyàgapa†a Inscriptions 287

Glossary 289

Select Bibliography 292

Index 303

The illustration section can be found after p 314.

Fig 1 Dhanabhuti inscription from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; possibly ca 150 BCE

Current location unknown Drawing: From A Cunningham, Archaeological Survey of India,

Report for the Year 1871–72, Vol III, Pl XVI, No 21

6½" × W 9½" × D 8" (0.775 × 0.225 × 0.29 m) National Museum, New Delhi; 59.539.Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 3 Detail of Fig 2 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 4 Detail of Fig 2 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 5 Culakokà devatà, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Plum sandstone

Indian Museum, Calcutta Photo: From A K Coomaraswamy, La Sculpture de Bharhut, Pl.

XIX, Fig 48

Indian Museum, Calcutta Photo: From A K Coomaraswamy, La Sculpture de Bharhut,

Fig 246

Fig 7 Male cauri bearer, from Jamàlpur-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150 BCE.

Red sandstone; H 1' 4" (0.405 m) Government Museum, Mathura; I.15 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Buff sandstone; H 1' 4" × W 7" × D 3" (40.5 × 17.8 × 7.62 cm) Government Museum,Mathura; 95.18 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Buff sandstone; H 1' 4" × W 7" × D 3" (40.5 × 17.8 × 7.62 cm) Government Museum,Mathura; 95.18 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 10a Tympanum spandrel, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Pink stone H 1' × 1' 10" (57 × 32 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; 56.395 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 10b Tympanum spandrel, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Pink stone H 1' × 1' 10" (57 × 32 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; 56.395 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 11 Tympanum fragment, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Buff stone; H 12½" × W 17" × D 2" (31.8 × 43.18 × 5.08 cm) Government Museum,Mathura; 47.3367 Photo: S R Quintanilla.

sand-Fig 12a Flower bearer from a gateway architrave baluster, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh;

ca 150 BCE Red sandstone; H 11 × W 4 3/4 × D 2 3/4 in (27.94 × 12.07 × 6.99cm) Los Angeles County Museum of Art, From the Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck Collection,Museum Associates Purchase; M.76.2.29 Photo: © 2006 Museum Associates/LACMA

Fig 12b Worshipper from a gateway architrave baluster, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh;

ca 150 BCE Red sandstone; H 11 × W 4 3/4 × D 2 3/4 in (27.94 × 12.07 × 6.99cm) Los Angeles County Museum of Art, From the Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck Collection,Museum Associates Purchase; M.76.2.29 Photo: © 2006 Museum Associates/LACMA.Fig 13 Dance scene on a coping stone, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh; ca 150 BCE.Plum sandstone National Museum, New Delhi Photo: From R C Agrawala, “A ShortNote on Unpublished Reliefs from Bharhut,” Pl XXII, Fig 3

Fig 14 Crossbar medallion with elephant and riders, from Gàyatrì-ˇìlà, Mathura, UttarPradesh; ca 150 BCE Buff sandstone; H 1' 4" × W 1' 2" (40.64 × 35.56 cm) Government

Museum, Mathura; 1341 Photo: From J P Vogel, La Sculpture de Mathura, Pl XIII b.

Fig 15 Parkham Yakßa, from Parkham, 14 miles (22.5 km) south of Mathura, UttarPradesh; ca 150 BCE Buff sandstone; H (with pedestal) 8' 8" (2.62 m) GovernmentMuseum, Mathura; C.1 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 16 Detail of Fig 15 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 17 Detail of Fig 15 Photo: S R Quintanilla

(6.43 km) from Parkham, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Buff sandstone; H 4' 2" (1.27 m).Government Museum, Mathura; C.23 Photo: S R Quintanilla

10" × W 2' 7" (87 X 79 cm) State Museum Lucknow; O.107 Photo: S R Quintanilla

m) Government Museum, Mathura; 17.1303 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies.Fig 21 Centaur architrave, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE.Red sandstone; H 9" × W 4' (0.229 × 1.22 m) State Museum, Lucknow; J.535 Photo:

From L Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 72.

Fig 22 Centaur architrave, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE.Red sandstone; H 9" × W 4' (0.229 × 1.22 m) State Museum, Lucknow; J.535 Photo:

From L Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 72.

Fig 23 Detail of Fig 21 Photo: P Chandra

Fig 24 Detail of Fig 22 Photo: P Chandra

Fig 25 Dance of Nìlàñjanà and the renunciation of °ßabhanàtha, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà,Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Buff sandstone State Museum, Lucknow; J.354/609.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 26 Detail of Fig 25 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 27 Detail of Fig 25 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 28 Detail of Fig 25 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 29 Katrà architrave, from Katrà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red stone; H 10" × W 4' 9½" (0.254 × 1.46 m) Government Museum, Mathura; M.1 Photo:American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 30 Katrà architrave, from Katrà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red stone; H 10" × W 4' 9½" (0.254 × 1.46 m) Government Museum, Mathura; M.1 Photo:American Institute of Indian Studies

sand-Fig 31 Detail of sand-Fig 29 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 32 Detail of Fig 29 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 33 Detail of Fig 29 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 34 Detail of Fig 30 Photo: P Chandra

Fig 35 Double-sided die with male devotee, from Bayana (or Bàjnà), Mathura, UttarPradesh; ca 100 BCE Red sandstone; H 9¾" (24.8 cm) Government Museum, Mathura;18.1448 Photo: P Chandra

Fig 36 Double-sided die with male devotee, from Bayana (or Bàjnà), Mathura, UttarPradesh; ca 100 BCE Red sandstone; H 9¾" (24.8 cm) Government Museum, Mathura;18.1448 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 37 Ranipur baluster, from Ranipur, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Redsandstone; H 10" (25.5 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; 19.1562 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 38 Ranipur baluster, from Ranipur, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Redsandstone; H 10" (25.5 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; 19.1562 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies.

120–100 BCE Red sandstone; H 3' (91.4 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.593A Photo:American Institute of Indian Studies

Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red sandstone; H 3' 4" (1.01 m) State Museum, Lucknow; J.545.Photo: R C Sharma

Fig 41 Photo: R C Sharma

Fig 42 Amin mithuna, from Amin, Haryana; ca 100 BCE Red sandstone; H 4' ×

W 1' 4" × D 1' (1.22 × 0.405 × 0.305 m) National Museum, New Delhi Photo: S R.Quintanilla

46" (1.17 m) National Museum, New Delhi Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 44 Detail of Fig 43 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 45 Detail of Fig 43 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Red sandstone; H 5' 3½" × W 11½" (1.61 × 0.292 m) Government Museum, Mathura;I.11 Photos: S R Quintanilla

Fig 47 Detail of Fig 46 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 48 Detail of Fig 46 Photo: P Chandra

Fig 49 Detail of Fig 46 Photo: P Chandra

Fig 50a Detail of Fig 46 Photo: P Chandra

Fig 50b Detail of Fig 46 Photo: P Chandra

Fig 51 Doorjamb with mithunas, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Buff

sand-stone; H 14½" × W 1' × D 6½" (36.8 × 30.48 × 16.5 cm) Government Museum,Mathura; 17.1295 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Dark red sandstone; H 6' 5" × W 10¾" × D 10" (1.96 × 0.273 × 0.254 m) GovernmentMuseum, Mathura; J.2 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 53 Detail of Fig 52 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies.

Fig 54 Detail of Fig 52 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 55 Detail of Fig 52 Brahmin addressing an assembly Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 56 Hathin yak ßa, from Hathin, Haryana; ca 100 BCE Spotted red sandstone;

H 5' × 10" (154 × 26 cm) Haryana Archaeological Survey Museum, Chandigarh; 1/331.Photo: From Prem Goswamy, “Two Early Kußà»a (?) Railing Pillars from Haryànà,”

Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, vol XV, 1985–86, Pl I

Fig 57 Detail of Fig 56 Photo: From Prem Goswamy, “Two Early Kußà»a (?) RailingPillars from Haryànà,” Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, vol XV,1985–86, Pl I

Fig 58 Detail of Fig 56 Photo: From Prem Goswamy, “Two Early Kußà»a (?) RailingPillars from Haryànà,” Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, vol XV,1985–86, Pl I

Fig 59 Detail of Fig 56 Photo: From Prem Goswamy, “Two Early Kußà»a (?) RailingPillars from Haryànà,” Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, vol XV,1985–86, Pl I

Fig 60 Detail of Fig 56 Photo: From Prem Goswamy, “Two Early Kußà»a (?) RailingPillars from Haryànà,” Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, vol XV,1985–86, Pl I

Fig 61 Bhàdas yakßa, from Bhàdas, Haryana; ca 100 BCE Spotted red sandstone;

H 4' 10" × 8" (149 × 24 cm) Haryana Archaeological Survey Museum Chandigarh;1/332 Photo: From Prem Goswamy, “Two Early Kußà»a (?) Railing Pillars from Haryànà,”

Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, vol XV, 1985–86, Pl II, fig 8.Fig 62 Kuwanwàligalì cauri bearer, from Kuwanwàligalì, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca

100 BCE Red sandstone; H 3' 6" (93 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; 48.3423.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 63 Corner post with bas relief panels showing veneration of a lion pillar, musiciansand dancer, amorous scenes, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE.Red sandstone; H 2' × W 7" (61 × 17.8 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.268 Photo:

S R Quintanilla

Fig 64 Detail of Fig 63 Photo: J M Rosenfield

Fig 65 Detail of Fig 63 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 66 Detail of Fig 63 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 67 Detail of Fig 63 Photo: S R Quintanilla.

Fig 68 Fragmentary mithuna panel with female onlooker, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh;

ca 100 BCE Red sandstone; H 8½" × 6" (21.5 × 15 cm) Government Museum, Mathura;60.4985 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

100 BCE Red sandstone Governmenet Museum, Mathura; 18.1516 Photo: S R.Quintanilla

Fig 70 Upright with medallion with a horse and rider, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura,Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red sandstone; H 6' 4" × 2' 6" (195 × 75 cm) StateMuseum, Lucknow; J.339 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 71 Medallion with bodhighara, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red

sand-stone; H 28 15/16" (73.5 cm) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; 26.96 Photograph © 2006Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Fig 72 Crossbar with naramakara and duck, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE.

Red sandstone; H 9" × W 14½" (22.9 × 36.8 cm) Philadelphia Museum of Art: Purchasedwith the Joseph E Temple Fund; 1968–164–1 Photo: Philadelphia Museum of Art

Fig 73 Medallion with horse and rider, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE.Red sandstone; H 11½" × W 1' 7" (29.2 × 48.3 cm) Government Museum, Mathura;L.2 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 74 Lotus medallion with male head, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE.Red sandstone; H 10¾" (27.3 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; L.22 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 75 Coping stone of Utàra, the goldsmith, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100BCE Red sandstone; H 8" × W 18" (21 × 61 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.475.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 76 Coping stone with bull and running griffin, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca

100 BCE Red sandstone; H 8" × W 18" (21 × 61 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.481.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 77 Coping stone with fishtail griffin, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE.Red sandstone; H 9" × W 1' 7" (23 × 49 cm); State Museum, Lucknow; J.491 Photo:American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 79 Coping stone with rhinoceros, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Redsandstone; H 9" × 1' 9" (23 × 54 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.483 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 80 Coping stone with bull, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red stone; H 9" × W 1' 6" (23 × 46 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.492 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies.

sand-Fig 81 Va »»upatha Jàtaka, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red sandstone;

H 6" × W 12" (15.2 × 30.5 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; B.122 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 82 Va »»upatha Jàtaka, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Plum stone Indian Museum, Calcutta Photo: From A K Coomaraswamy, La Sculpture de Bharhut,

sand-Fig 84

Fig 83 Man driving a bull, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red sandstone;

H 6½" × W 9½" (17 × 24 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.628 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 84 Fragment with kinnara, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red

sand-stone; H 21" × W 18½" (53.54 × 47 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.106 Photo:American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 85 Yak ßa with sword and child, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Buff

sandstone; H 1' 3" (38.1 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; I.18 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 86 Bhara»a Kalan Agni, from Bhara»a Kalan, twenty miles (32 km) northwest ofMathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Buff sandstone; H 6' 6" (1.98 m) with base.Government Museum, Mathura; 87.146 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 87 Detail of Fig 86 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 88 Bhara»a Kalan yakßa, from Bhara»a Kalan, twenty miles (32 km) northwest ofMathura, Uttar Pradesh, ca 100 BCE Buff sandstone; H 6' 5" (1.96 m) with base.Government Museum, Mathura; 87.145 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 89 Detail of Fig 88 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 90 Hariparvat-ˇìlà yakßa, from Hariparvat-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150BCE Buff sandstone; H 14" (34 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; 44.3130 Photo:American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 91 Noh yak ßa, from Noh, near Bharatpur, Rajasthan; ca 100 BCE Buff sandstone;

H 7' 7" × W 3' × D 1' 1" (2.31 × 0.914 × 0.33 m) Enshrined in Noh Village Photo:

S R Quintanilla

Fig 92 Detail from reverse of Fig 91 Photo: From R C Agrawala, “UnpublishedYaksha-Yakshì Statues from Besnagar,” Lalit Kala, No 14, 1969, Fig 7.

red sandstone; H 3' 4" × W 21" × D 9" (1.02 × 0.533 × 0.229 m) State Museum,Bharatpur; 213.64 Photo: S R Quintanilla

ca 100 BCE Gray sandstone; H 3½' × W 21" (1.07 × 0.533 m) State Museum,Bharatpur; 301 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 95a Side view of Fig 94 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 95b Detail of reverse of Fig 94 Photo: S R Quintanilla

sand-stone; H 4' 8" (1.42 m) Government Museum, Mathura; 56.4248 Photo: S R Quintanilla

15¾" × 14" (45.2 × 40 × 35.6 cm) Cleveland Museum of Art; 1962.45 Photo: ©TheCleveland Museum of Art, Norman O Stone and Ella A Stone Memorial Fund

km) southwest of Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red sandstone; H 4½' × 2'(1.37 × 0.61 m) Government Museum, Mathura; 72.1 Photo: American Institute of IndianStudies

Fig 99 Detail of Fig 98 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 100 Jansuti Balaràma, from Jansuti, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Darkred sandstone; H 2' 6" (68 × 26 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; G.215 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 101 Nanakpura Balaràma, from Nanakpura, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150 BCE.Buff sandstone; H 4' (1.22 m) Government Museum, Mathura; 93.37 Photo: S R.Quintanilla

Fig 102 Standing Pàr≤vanàtha and attendant, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100–75BCE Gray sandstone; H 46" × W 29" (1.17 × 0.737 m) State Museum, Lucknow;J.82/75 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 103 Detail of Fig 102 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 104 Detail of Fig 102 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 105 °ßabhanàtha seated in two stages of meditation, from Amber, Rajasthan; ca.

1680 CE Opaque watercolor and gold on paper; H 10 23/32" × W 16 21/32" (27.2

cm × 42.3 cm) San Diego Museum of Art (Edwin Binney 3rd Collection); 1990:214.Photo: San Diego Museum of Art

Fig 106 Worship of a Jaina symbol, in situ in the Mañcapuri Cave, Udayagiri, Orissa;

ca 75–50 BCE Photo: P Chandra

Fig 107a Mithuna panel of a vedik à upright, from Bodhgaya, Bihar; ca 100 BCE Gray

sandstone Archaeological Museum, Bodhgaya Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 107b Coping stone reliefs with lotus flowers, from Bodhgaya, Bihar; ca 100 BCE.Gray sandstone Archaeological Museum, Bodhgaya Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 108 Heliodoros pillar, at Besnagar, Madhya Pradesh; ca 120–100 BCE Buff

sand-stone; H 21' 4" (6.5 m) Photo: From L Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 14.

Fig 109 Vai≤àlì A≤okan lion pillar, at Vai≤àlì, Bihar; ca 250–200 BCE Buff-coloredChunàr sandstone; H 36' (11 m) Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 110 Detail of Fig 109 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 111 Vidi≤à yakßa, from Vidi≤à (Besnagar), Madhya Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Buff stone; H ca 12' (3.66 m) Vidi≤à Museum Photo: S R Quintanilla

sand-Fig 112 Fragment with ardhaph àlaka càra»amuni and kinnara, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh;

ca 100 BCE Red sandstone; H 22" × W 23" (55.8 × 58.4 cm) State Museum, Lucknow;J.105 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 113 Double-sided crossbar with mythical animals, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca

150 BCE Red sandstone; H 9½" × W 13" (24 × 33 cm) Patna Museum; Arch 5828.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 114 Double-sided crossbar with mythical animals, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca

150 BCE Red sandstone; H 9½" × W 13" (24 × 33 cm) Patna Museum; Arch 5828.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 115 Yak ßì bust, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Plum sandstone; 11"

(28 cm) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; 1931.435 Photograph © 2006 Museum of FineArts, Boston

Fig 116 Yak ßì climbing a tree, from Bodhgaya, Bihar; ca 100 BCE Gray sandstone.

Archaeological Museum, Bodhgaya Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 117 Sanchi yak ßì, east gate bracket, Stùpa I at Sanchi; ca 50–20 BCE Buff

sand-stone Photo: Eliot Elisophon, in Heinrich Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia, vol II, Pl 15 Fig 118 Yavanarajya inscription, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; 70 or 69 BCE (Year One

Hundred Sixteen) Red sandstone Government Museum, Mathura; 88.150 Photo: From

G Fussman, “L’Indo-Grec Ménandre ou Paul Demiéville Revisité,” p 113

Fig 119 Ma»ibhadra inscription, from Masharfa, near Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh; ca firstcentury BCE Photo: From D.C Sircar, “Two Bràhmì Inscriptions,” Pl I

trap Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 121 Scene in Uttarakuru, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Plum

sand-stone Indian Museum, Calcutta Photo: From A K Coomaraswamy, La Sculpture de Bharhut,

Fig 131

Dark gray sandstone; H 18" × W 29" (46 × 74 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.256.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

“Early Jaina Icons from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh,” Fig 34.5

Fig 124 Architrave with flower-offering platform, from Bharhut, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150

BCE Plum sandstone Indian Museum, Calcutta Photo: From A K Coomaraswamy, La

Sculpture de Bharhut, Pl III

Fig 125 Okara»a àyàgapa†a, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Red sandstone;

H 30" × W 15" (78 × 40 cm) Patna Museum; Arch 5811 Photo: American Institute

of Indian Studies

BCE Buff sandstone; H 13" × W 13¾" (33 × 34.9 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.618.Photo: S R Quintanilla

Uttar Pradesh; ca 100 BCE Buff sandstone State Museum, Lucknow; B.128 Photo:

S R Quintanilla

Figs 128a and 128b Coping stone reliefs with running animals, from Bodhgaya, Bihar;

ca 100 BCE Gray sandstone Archaeological Museum, Bodhgaya Photos: S R Quintanilla.Fig 129 Fragment of -tusikà àyàgapa†a, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75 BCE Redsandstone; H 19" × W 11" (48 × 28 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.260 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 130 Bhikhu Phagula ≤ilà, from Ghoßitàràma Monastery, Kau≤àmbì, Uttar Pradesh;

ca 75 BCE Brown sandstone; H 21" × W 21" (55 × 56 cm) Allahabad UniversityMuseum Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 131 Simla Museum àyàgapa†a, from Kà«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca

75–50 BCE Red sandstone; H 14" × W 16½" × D 4" (35.6 × 41.9 × 10.2 cm) StateMuseum, Himachal Pradesh, Simla; J.247 Photo: State Museum, Himachal Pradesh

Fig 132 Àyàgapa†a fragment with cakra, from Ka»kàlì-Tìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca.

75 BCE Buff sandstone; H 7" × W 10" (17.78 × 25.4 cm) Government Museum,Mathura; 15.569 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 133 Year Twenty-One àyàgapa†a, from Kathoti Kuà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; 37 or

36 BCE (Year 21) Red sandstone; H 17" × W 16" (43 × 40.64 cm) GovernmentMuseum, Mathura; 35.2563 Photo: J M Rosenfield

Fig 134 Detail of the inscription on the Year Twenty-One àyàgapa†a (Fig 133) Photo:

S R Quintanilla

Fig 135 Chattra of the Bala Buddha (see Fig 173), from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, exported

from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; 130 CE (Year Three of Kanißka) Red sandstone SarnathArchaeological Museum; no 348 Photo: P Chandra

Fig 136 Seated Buddha, from Sonkh, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; 150 CE (Year Three of Kanißka) Red sandstone Government Museum, Mathura; 20.1602 Photo:

Twenty-From R C Sharma, Buddhist Art, Mathura School, Fig 80.

Fig 137 Seated Buddha with attendants, from Ahichhatra, Uttar Pradesh; 159 CE (YearThirty-Two) Red sandstone National Museum, New Delhi; L.55.25 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 138 Pillars of the east gate, Sanchi St ùpa I, at Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh; ca 50–20

BCE Buff sandstone Photo: Eliot Elisophon in Heinrich Zimmer, The Art of Indian Asia,

Pl 16

Fig 139 Àyàgapa†a fragment with a≤oka flowers, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–50

BCE Red sandstone; H 14½" × W 11" (37 × 29 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.257.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 140 Dhanamitra àyàgapa†a, from Kà«kàlì ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 20 BCE.

Red sandstone; H 35" × W 32" (89 × 81 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.250 See alsoFig 192 Photo: J M Rosenfield

Fig 141 Detail of Fig 140 Photo: J M Rosenfield

Fig 142a Detail of Fig 140 Photo: J M Rosenfield

Fig 142b Detail of Fig 140 Photo: S R Quintanilla.

Fig 143 Màtharaka àyàgapa†a, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 20 BCE.Red sandstone; H 34" × W 34" (87 × 87 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.248 Photo:

J M Rosenfield

Fig 144 Detail of Fig 143 Photo: J M Rosenfield

Fig 145 Detail of Fig 143 Photo: J M Rosenfield

Red sandstone; H 12" X W 12½" × D 3" (30 × 31.75 × 7.62 cm) Ferenc HoppMuseum of Eastern Asiatic Arts, Budapest, Hungary Photo: Ferenc Hopp Museum ofEastern Asiatic Arts, Budapest

Uttar Pradesh; ca 20 BCE–15 CE Buff sandstone; H 12" × W 11½" × D 3" (30.5 ×

Red sandstone; H 38" × W 44" (96.5 × 111.76 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.1 Seealso Fig 273 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 149 Detail of Fig 148 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 150 Pàr≤vanàtha àyàgapa†a, from Kà«kàlì ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE.Red sandstone; H 34" × W 37" (86 × 94 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.253 Photo:

J M Rosenfield

Fig 151 Detail of Fig 150 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 152 Detail of Fig 150 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 153 Nàádighoßa àyàgapa†a, from Ahichhatra, Uttar Pradesh or Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura,Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Red sandstone; H 33" × W 29" (85 × 75 cm) Rajgir BodhSangrahalaya, Gorakhpur; J.686A Photo: J M Rosenfield

CE Sandstone; H 15" × W 15½" × D 4" (39.37 × 39.8 × 10.5 cm) British Museum,London; 1901, 12–24, 10 B&M Photo: British Museum

Pradesh; ca 200 CE Sandstone; H 15½" × W 15" × D 4" (39.8 × 39.37 × 10.5 cm).British Museum, London; 1901, 12–24, 10 B&M Photo: British Museum

Fig 156 Sihanàádika àyàgapa†a, from Kà«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 25–50

CE Reddish sandstone; H 24" × W 22½" (65 × 57.5 cm) National Museum, NewDelhi; J.249 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 157 Detail of Fig 156 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 158 Detail of Fig 156 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 159 Acalà àyàgapa†a, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 25–50 CE

Buff sandstone; H 31" × W 28" (79 × 71 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.252 Photo:John M Rosenfield

Fig 160 Chaubiàpàdà àyàgapa†a, from Chaubiàpàdà-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca.75–100 CE Red sandstone; H 15" × W 26" (38 × 66 cm) Government Museum,Mathura; 48.3426 Photo: courtesy of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, by Ranjit

K Datta Gupta

Fig 161 Amoghadatta àyàgapa†a, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100 CE Red

sandstone; H 17" × W 13" (44 × 33 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.264 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 162 Àyàgapa†a fragment with grapevine border, from Ka«kàlì-Tìlà, Mathura, Uttar

Pradesh; ca 75–100 CE Buff sandstone; H 18½" × W 15½" × D 5" (46.3 × 39.37 ×12.7 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; Q.3 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 163 Inscription on reverse of àyàgapa†a fragment with grapevine border (reverse of

Fig 162); ca second–third century CE Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 164 Detail of Fig 162 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 165 •ivaya≤à àyàgapa†a, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100 CE.

Buff sandstone; H 21" × W 28" (53 × 71 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.255 Photo:

S R Quintanilla

Fig 166 Detail of Fig 165 Photo: J M Rosenfield

Fig 167 Detail of Fig 165 Photo: J M Rosenfield

Fig 168 Vasu ≤ilàpa†a, from Maholi, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100 CE Red

sand-stone; H 28" × W 22" (73 × 57 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; Q.2 Photo: From

L Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 91.

Fig 169 C àra»amuni, detail of Fig 168 Photo: S R Quintanilla.

Fig 170 C àra»amuni, detail of Fig 168 Photo: S R Quintanilla.

Fig 171 Yak ßì in niche, detail from the Vasu ≤ilàpa†a in Fig 168 Photo: S R Quintanilla.

in Fig 168 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 173 Standing Buddha dedicated by the monk Bala, from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh,exported from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; 130 CE (Year Three) Red sandstone; H 8¾'

(2.7 m) Sarnath Archaeological Museum; B(a)I Photo: From L A Bachhofer, Early Indian

Fig 176 Fragment of a carved lintel, from Jamàlpur-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca

150 CE Red sandstone; H 2' × W 4' (61 × 122 cm) Government Museum, Mathura;

P.1 Photo: From J P Vogel, La Sculpture de Mathura, Pl XXIIa.

Fig 177 Ka»a plaque, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; 226 CE (Year Nine) Buff sandstone; H 21½" × W 19" (8.5 × 7.5 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.623.Photo: J M Rosenfield

Ninety-Fig 178 Ko¬iya Ga»a àyàgapa†a, from Manohar Purà ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca.third century CE Buff sandstone; H 9½" × W 19" × D 3" (24 × 48.5 × 8 cm).Government Museum, Mathura; 20–21.1603 Photo: S R Quintanilla

sandstone H 7½" (including tenon) × W 7" (19.1 × 17.8 cm) State Museum, Lucknow;J.251 Photo: S R Quintanilla

cen-tury CE Photo: S R Quintanilla

BCE Sandstone; H 1' 5½" × 10" (45 × 26 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; I.13.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 182 Architrave fragment with makara, dragon-legged composite figure, and lotus

rhi-zome, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20 BCE Buff sandstone; H 8" × L 2' 1½"(20 × 66 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; M.2 Photo: American Institute of IndianStudies

Fig 183 Detail of Fig 182 Photo: S R Quintanilla.

Fig 184 Coping fragment with walled garden, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20BCE Red sandstone; H 11½' × W 1'6" (29 × 46 cm) Formerly in the collection of

Spink and Son (see Artibus Asiae, vol 35, no 3, 1973, end) Photo: Spink & Son.

Fig 185 Bas relief panels on reverse of the Ka†hika railing pillar, from Chaubàra-ˇìlà,Mound A, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20 BCE Red sandstone; H 2' 7½" (80 cm).Government Museum, Mathura; J.7 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 186 Detail of Fig 185 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 187 Detail of Fig 185 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 188 Male figure or yakßa on obverse of the Ka†hika railing pillar (Fig 185), fromChaubàra-ˇìlà, Mound A, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20 BCE Red sandstone; H.2' 7½" (80 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; J.7 Photo: Ludwig Bachhofer, Early

Indian Sculpture, Pl 98

Fig 189 Yak ßì on a railing pillar donated by Ka†hika, from Chaubàra-ˇìlà, Mathura,

Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20 BCE Red sandstone; 4' 6" (137 cm) Private Collection,Switzerland Photo by the owner

Fig 190a Añjal ì pillar fragment, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20 BCE Red

sand-stone; H 15¾" × W 8½" (40 × 21.6 cm) In the collection of Spink & Son, 1997 Photo:Spink & Son, London

Fig 190b Añjal ì pillar: female figure holding a palm fan, obverse of Fig 190a, from

Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20 BCE Red sandstone; H 15¾" × W 8½" (40 × 21.6cm) In the collection of Spink & Son, 1997 Photo: Spink & Son, London

Fig 191 Gàyatrì-ˇìlà doorjamb, from Gàyatrì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20BCE Red sandstone; H 1'10" (55.9 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; 17.1343 Photo:

From J P Vogel, La Sculpture de Mathura, Pl LIX b.

Fig 192 Detail of Dhanamitra àyàgapa†a, from Kà«kàlì ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh;

ca 20 BCE Red sandstone; State Museum, Lucknow; J.250 See also Figs 140–142b.Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 193 Jankhat doorjamb, from Jankhat, Farrukhabad District, western Uttar Pradesh;

ca 50–20 BCE Buff sandstone; H 3½' × W 1' 7½" (93 × 50 cm) Kannauj ArchaeologicalMuseum; 79/219 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 194 Detail of Fig 193 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 195 Jankhat doorjamb with ≤àlàbhañjikà, from Jankhat, Farrukhabad District, Uttar

Pradesh; ca 50–20 BCE Buff sandstone Kannauj Archaeological Museum; 79/218 Photo:American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 196 Detail of Fig 195 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

sand-stone; H 48 7/8" × W 14 7/8" × 6 7/8" (124.1 × 38.8 × 17.5 cm) Asian Art Museum,San Francisco, gift of the Walter and Phyllis Shorenstein Fund; B.86S4 Photo: ©AsianArt Museum

Fig 198 Isisiágiya (°ßya≤‰«ga) Jàtaka, medallion of a railing pillar, from Bharhut, MadhyaPradesh; ca 150 BCE Plum sandstone Indian Museum, Calcutta; no 225 Photo: R C.Sharma

and buff sandstone; H 2' 6" × W 7½" (76.2 × 19 cm) Bharat Kala Bhavan, BanarasHindu University, Varanasi; #695 Photo: S R Quintanilla

9½" × 6" (53.34 × 24.13 × 15.24 cm) Los Angeles County Museum of Art, From theNasli and Alice Heeramaneck Collection; L69.24.286 Photo: ©2006 Museum Associates/LACMA

from Sanghol, p 75, fig 14

Fig 202 Woman riding a griffin, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20 BCE Redsandstone; H 9¾" × W 1' 4" (23 × 40.5 cm) Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras HinduUniversity, Varanasi; #21768 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

(now Ayodhya), exported from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 50–20 BCE Red sandstone;

H 3' 2½" (98.2 cm) Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi; #170.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 204 Detail of Fig 203 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 205 Detail of Fig 203 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 206 Detail of Fig 203 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 207 Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà yakßì, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 100–125

CE Red sandstone; H 1' 10" (55.88 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; 369 Photo:

From L Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 101.

Fig 208 Detail of a vedik à-stambha, from Amaravati, AndhraPradesh; ca second century

CE Limestone Government Museum, Madras Photo: From A K Coomaraswamy, Yak ßas,

Fig 211 Reverse of Fig 210 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 212 Detail of Fig 210 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 213 Mathura lion capital, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 2 BCE–6 CE Redsandstone; H 1' 8" (50.8 cm) British Museum; 1889, 3–14,1 B&M Photo: British Museum

Fig 214 Reverse of Fig 213 B&M Photo: British Museum

Fig 215 Bottom of Fig 213 Photo: British Museum

Fig 216 Mirjàpur stele inscription, from Mirjàpur Village, southern outskirts of Mathura,Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Red sandstone; H 1' 5" × W 3' (44 × 96 cm) GovernmentMuseum, Mathura; 79.29 Photo: From R C Sharma, “New Inscriptions from Mathurà,”

in Mathura: The Cultural Heritage, ed Doris Meth Srinivasan, Pl 31.I.A.

Fig 217 Katrà tora»a fragment, from Katrà Ke≤avadeva, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15

CE Red sandstone; H 11½" × W 8¾" × D 7½" (29.21 × 22.225 × 19.05) GovernmentMuseum, Mathura; 54.3768 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 218 Katrà tora»a fragment, from Katrà Ke≤avadeva, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15

CE Red sandstone; H 11½" × W 8¾" × D 7½" (29.21 × 22.225 × 19.05 cm).Government Museum, Mathura; 54.3768 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 219 Mah àbodhi Jàtaka, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Plum stone Indian Museum, Calcutta Photo: From A K Coomaraswamy, La Sculpture de Bharhut,

sand-fig 137

Fig 220 Secha J àtaka, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh; ca 150 BCE Plum sandstone Indian Museum, Calcutta Photo: From A K Coomaraswamy, La Sculpture de Bharhut,

Fig 237

Fig 221 Ardhaph àlakas, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Red sandstone; H 7¼"

× W 24½" (18.4 × 61.5 cm) Brooklyn Museum of Art; 87.188.5 Photo: Brooklyn Museum

of Art

Fig 222 National Museum tympanum, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca

15 CE Red sandstone; H 3' 3" (99.1 cm) National Museum, New Delhi; J.555 Photo:

From L Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 102; Fig 224.

Fig 223 National Museum tympanum, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca

15 CE Red sandstone; H 3' 3" (99.1 cm) National Museum, New Delhi; J.555 Photo:

L Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 102; Fig 224.

Fig 224 Detail of Fig 222 Photo: From P Pal ed., The Peaceful Liberators: Jain Art from

India, Los Angeles, 1994, p 102

Fig 225 Detail of Fig 222 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 226 Detail of Fig 222 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 227 Detail of Fig 222 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 228 Detail of Fig 222 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 229 Detail of Fig 223 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 230 Detail of Fig 223 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 231 Detail of Fig 223 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 232 Detail of Fig 223 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 233 Jaina tympanum, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150–200 CE Red stone; H 12½" × W 2' 2½" (31.75 × 36.83) State Museum, Lucknow; B.207 Photo:

sand-S R Quintanilla

Fig 234 Balahastinì doorjamb, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE.Red sandstone; H 2' 6" × W 9" (76.5 × 23 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.532 Photo:

S R Quintanilla

Fig 235 Detail of Fig 234 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 236 Detail of Fig 234 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 237 Reverse of Fig 234 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 238 Detail of Fig 237 Photo: S R Quintanilla.

Fig 239 °≤ya≤‰«ga Pillar, from Govindnagar, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Redsandstone; H 4' × W 8½" × D 6½" (H 139 × 21.59 × 16.51 cm) Government Museum,Mathura; 76.40 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 240 Detail of Fig 239 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 241 Detail of Fig 239 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 242 Detail of Fig 239 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 243 Detail of Fig 239 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 244 Reverse of Fig 239 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 245 Detail of Fig 244 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 246 Detail of Fig 244 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 247 Detail of Fig 244 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 248 Detail of Fig 244 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 249 Norton Simon Museum pillar, from Govindnagar, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca

15 CE Red sandstone; H 7'7" × W 8 5/8" × D 8¾" (231 × 21.59 × 22.225 cm).Norton Simon Museum; F.1975.07.S Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena,CA

Fig 250 Reverse of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA

Fig 251 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA

Fig 252 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 253 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA

Fig 254 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA

Fig 255 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA

Fig 256 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA

Fig 257 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA

Fig 258 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA.Fig 259 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA.Fig 260 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA.Fig 261 Detail of Fig 249 Photo: The Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA.

ca 15 CE Buff sandstone; H 1' 7" (48.2 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; H.12.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 263 Brahmin hermit instructing disciples, from Bharhut, Madhya Pradesh; ca 150

BCE Plum sandstone Indian Museum, Calcutta Photo: From A K Coomaraswamy, La

Sculpture de Bharhut, Fig 172

Fig 264 Vasu doorjamb, found in the cantonment, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE.Red sandstone; H 8' 5" × W 1' 4" × D 8" (256.54 × 40.64 × 20.32 cm) GovernmentMuseum, Mathura; 13.367 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 265 Morà doorjamb, from Morà, seven miles (11.27 km) west of Mathura, UttarPradesh; ca 15 CE Red sandstone; H 8½' × W 1' (265 × 30 cm) State Museum,Lucknow; J.526 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 266 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 267 Morà well inscription, from Morà, seven miles (11.27 km) west of Mathura,Uttar Pradesh ca 15 CE Red sandstone; H 11' 2" × W 2' 11" (350.6 × 916 cm).Government Museum, Mathura; Q.1 Photo: H Lüders, “Seven Brahmi Inscriptions fromMathura, Uttar Pradesh and its Vicinity,” Fig I

Fig 268 Architectural fragment with man playing a stringed instrument, from Mathura,Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Red sandstone; H 11 1/3" × W 9 7/8" (28.5 × 25 cm) StateMuseum, Lucknow; J.632 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 269 Architectural fragment, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Red stone; H 7½" × W 11½" (19 × 29.21 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.627 Photo:American Institute of Indian Studies

sand-Fig 270 Architectural fragment, from Ka†hoti well, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE.Red sandstone; H 7" × W 11" × D 3" (28.5 × 17.5 cm) Government Museum, Mathura;14.405 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 271 Akrùr-ˇìlà devatà, from Akrùr-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Redsandstone; H 2' (61.5 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; F.6 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 272 Reverse of Fig 271 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies.

Fig 273 Detail of the Amohini àyavati (see also Figs 148 and 149), from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà,

Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; CE 15 (Year Seventy-Two) Red sandstone State Museum,Lucknow; J.1 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 274 Fragment of a coping stone, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Buffsandstone; H 8½" × W 2' (21.6 × 64.8 cm) Formerly in the Doris Wiener Gallery, New

York; current location unknown Photo: Sotheby’s, auction catalogue Indian and Southeast Asian Art, September 21, 1995

Fig 275 Architectural fragment with st ùpa and nàgas, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca.

15 CE Buff sandstone H 2' × 15" (61 × 37.5 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; I.9.Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 276 Morà torso, from Morà Village, seven miles (11.27 km) west of Mathura, UttarPradesh; ca 15 CE Red sandstone; H 2' 3" (68.58 cm) Government Museum, Mathura;E.22 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 277 Side view of Fig 276 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 278 Morà torso, from Morà Village, seven miles (11.27 km) west of Mathura, UttarPradesh; ca 15 CE Red sandstone; H 3' (91.44 cm) Government Museum, Mathura;E.21 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 279 Reverse of Fig 278 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 280 Agni, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Red sandstone; H 19" × 11"(48.26 × 27.94 cm) Bharat Kala Bhavan, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi; #23171.Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 281 Standing male divinity, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Buff stone; H 21" × W 15" (53.34 × 38.1 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; 35.2576.Photo: S R Quintanilla

sand-Fig 282 Reverse of sand-Fig 281 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 283 Seated male figure, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 15 CE Red sandstone;

H 22½" (57 cm) Linden-Museum, Staatliche Museum für Völkerkunde, Stuttgart; SA35687L Photo: Ursula Didoni for Linden-Museum

Fig 284 Buddhist tympanum, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca second quarter of thefirst century CE Red sandstone; H 30" × W 20" (78 × 50.8 cm) Boston Museum ofFine Arts; 1926.241 Photograph © 2006 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Fig 285 Buddhist tympanum, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca second quarter of thefirst century CE Red sandstone; H 30" × W 20" (78 × 50.8 cm) Boston Museum ofFine Arts; 1926.241 Photograph © 2006 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Fig 286 Buddhist tympanum, from Jamàlpur-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150 CE.Red sandstone; H 3' (94 cm) National Museum, New Delhi; I.1 Photo: From L A

Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 103.

Fig 287 Buddhist tympanum, from Jamàlpur-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 150 CE.Red sandstone; H 3' (94 cm) National Museum, New Delhi; I.1 Photo: From L A

Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 103.

Buff sandstone; H 9" × L 3' (23 × 92 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; I.4 Photo:

S R Quintanilla

Fig 289 Bas relief panel with the Buddha addressing a king, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh;

ca 50–100 CE Buff sandstone; H 12" × W 18" × D 3" (30.48 × 45.72 × 7.62); StateMuseum, Lucknow; J.531 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 290 Architrave fragment with three men and elephant riders, from Mathura, UttarPradesh; ca 50 CE Buff sandstone; H 1' × 1' 9" (30 × 54 cm) Government Museum,Mathura; S.N 203 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 291 Naigameßin architrave, from Ka«kàlì-ˇìlà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100

CE Red sandstone; H 10" × 1'10" (25 × 55 cm) State Museum, Lucknow; J.626/528.Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 292 Detail of Fig 291 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 293 Detail of Fig 291 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 294 Reverse of Fig 291 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 295 Indra≤aila architrave, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100 CE Red stone; H 7 ½" × W 8' (19 × 252 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; M.3 Photo:

sand-From L Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 104.

Fig 296 Indra≤aila architrave, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100 CE Red stone; H 7½" × W 8' (19 × 252 cm) Government Museum, Mathura; M.3 Photo:

sand-From L Bachhofer, Early Indian Sculpture, Pl 104.

Fig 297 Detail of Fig 295 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 298 Detail of Fig 295 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 299 Detail of Fig 296 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies.

Fig 300 Detail of Fig 296 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 301 Detail of Fig 296 Photo: American Institute of Indian Studies

Fig 302 Buddhist pedestal with Indra and Brahmà, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca.50–100 CE Buff sandstone; H 28" × W 33" (71 × 83.82 cm) State Museum, Lucknow;B.18 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 303 Harvard Buddha triad, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100 CE Spottedred sandstone; H 7" × W 8½" (18.5 × 21.5 cm) Harvard University, Arthur M SacklerMuseum, Ernst B and Helen Pratt Dane Fund for the Acquisition of Oriental Art, 1982.51.Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 304 N àga, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100 CE Buff sandstone; H 3' 7"

(1.07 m) Government Museum, Mathura; 17.1257 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 305 Standing male divinity, from Gane≤arà, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100

CE Red sandstone; H 9½' (3 m) State Museum, Lucknow; B.12 Photo: AmericanInstitute of Indian Studies

Fig 306 Reverse of Fig 305 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 307 Yak ßì, from Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; ca 75–100 CE Red sandstone; H 4' (124.4

cm) The Cleveland Museum of Art, Purchase from the J H Wade Fund 1968.104.Photo: ©The Cleveland Museum of Art

Fig 308 Reverse of Fig 307 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 309 Pedestal of Mahàvìra, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh; 113 or 114 CE (Year 299) Pinksandstone State Museum, Lucknow; J.2 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Fig 310 Detail of Fig 309 Photo: S R Quintanilla

Pramod Chandra

Dr Quintanilla’s book, a mine of new information on the sculpture of Mathura, greatlyexpands our knowledge of artistic production in that great city I had the pleasure ofbeing closely associated with the work from its inception and shared the many joys ofdiscovery with the author as the work proceeded to completion It is thus a particularpleasure to accept her request that I write a preface

The categorization of Indian art, on whatever principle the categories may be based,whether religious, dynastic, chronological, territorial, or otherwise, is largely conditioned

by a quantitative assessment of the materials available at the time when these categorieswere first established That the number of objects to have survived might be purely acci-dental and subject to radical change by new discoveries either in the field or by a re-examination of the existing corpus, or both, is given but little consideration Moreover,with the passage of time these categories tend to entrench themselves, taking on an auton-omy and magnetism of their own So strong is their pull that the differences among objects

of art, minor or major, tend to be passed over as they are willy-nilly assigned to oneperiod or the other This naturally results in objects that do not belong to a particularcategory being nevertheless assigned to it And if works of art clearly resist falling intoestablished categories, they are consigned to a marginal existence, and there they remain

in limbo, largely forgotten among the concerns of everyday scholarship, except perhaps

as some kind of minor prelude to the major settled divisions

The work produced at Mathura, one of the greatest centers of Indian art, is an lent case in point Because of the recovery there, in however disorderly a manner, ofgreat numbers of sculptures datable to a period roughly coinciding with the rule of theKuᅯa dynasty, there came to be established the so-called Kuᅯa school of Mathurasculpture This school has attracted fairly intense attention for about a century, the exten-sive studies throwing a flood of light not only on the history of Indian art but also onmany vital aspects of the aesthetic, religious, and cultural life of India So firmly did theKuᅯa school take hold of the imagination of scholars that many works of art that didnot belong were nevertheless assigned to it, the differences being either not observed orunconsciously glossed over Works that clearly did not fit were sidelined and at bestassigned to what was called the pre-Kuᅯa style, as though this was but a phase transi-tional to Kuᅯa achievement, and not a style in its own right, with its own individual-ity and distinct excellences

excel-Dr Quintanilla corrects this situation She firmly establishes, in this meticulous and cerning study, the existence of two vital and important periods of sculpture at Mathurabefore the Kuᅯa period that had not been clearly formulated earlier The first of these,which parallels work from other parts of India, stretches from the middle of the second

dis-to the early first century BCE Its legitimacy is established beyond doubt by two

discov-ered at the site of Bharana Kalan less than 20 years ago (Figs 86–89) In my estimation

they are true masterpieces and point up the high achievements of the Mathura school inthis phase The second period, extending from about the first century BCE to the so-called Kußà»a period, has also been set forth clearly Dr Quintanilla has successfullyestablished and filled out its hitherto vague outlines not only by assembling and analyz-ing newly discovered images but by convincingly reassigning several images that had beenearlier assigned to the Kußà»a period One such is the splendid image of the yakßì fromFaizabad, another masterpiece that Dr Quintanilla conclusively assigns to this period,confirming the continuing vitality and strength of Mathura in this phase as well (Figs.203–206 All this skillful discourse involves a sensitive appreciation of problems of formbacked up by the palaeography of inscriptions, the historical evidence, as is often the casewith early Indian sculpture, being but of marginal use.

Once this basic task of recreating the identity of work at Mathura is done, the authoruses the art to cast light on the history of religious developments in Buddhism, Jainism,and the Hindu religion, though paradoxically enough, she also asserts that there is nodenominational art as such, but rather one Indian art that is used by the various reli-gions for their own purposes In explicating the subject matter of this art, she expands

on the work of Coomaraswamy That great scholar, on whose shoulders we all stand, had

earlier demonstrated in his innovative Elements of Buddhist Iconography and other studies the

impossibility of a comprehensive understanding of Buddhist art without reference to apan-Indian imagery occurring as early as the Veda Dr Quintanilla extends this mode of

a Buddhist one as well) We also learn from the art much about the Jaina Ardhaphàlakas,

period as early as the late second century BCE All this, of course, has profound cations for the time-honored topic of the development of the Buddha image and estab-lishes that there was a much longer tradition in India for this type of iconographicdevelopment than was thought previously

impli-Harvard University

1 November 2001

Above all, I owe a great debt to Pramod Chandra, my advisor and guide in every aspect

of this endeavor Words cannot express my gratitude for his boundless generosity in ing me to understand the arts of India He instilled in me the importance of thoroughexamination of all available evidence, close visual analysis of objects, familiarity with lan-guages and literature, and aspects of Indian culture and scholarship too numerous to list.Deep gratitude is also due to David Gordon Mitten, who devoted enormous energy toediting the manuscript of this book and contributing his insights from his expertise in thearts of the ancient world Similarly, I extend my sincerest appreciation to Michael Witzelfor his invaluable guidance in deciphering and analyzing Bràhmì inscriptions and for hisilluminating contributions derived from his profound and extensive knowledge of Sanskritliterature and ancient Indian culture I am greatly indebted to Richard Salomon andGregory Schopen for generously sharing their unparalleled expertise in the literature andepigraphy of first century CE South Asia and especially for the many hours they spentpatiently evaluating my readings and rereadings of the Mathura lion capital inscriptions

teach-In numerous ways, Robert L Brown has aided and supported this endeavor in its finalstages, from assistance in obtaining research materials to his constant willingness to dis-cuss and expertly evaluate ideas, and for all this I am very grateful

The constant and unconditional support of my husband, Marcus Salvato Quintanilla,and my mother-in-law, Debra Louise Rohan, have been invaluable For their many years

of forbearance as I sought after, studied, and wrote on the ancient stones from Mathura,

I am eternally grateful I am also grateful to my children, Vita Margaret Quintanilla andGregory Marco Quintanilla, for taking long naps and being patient and forbearing whiletheir mother worked on these chapters My mother and father, Young and Marylin Rhie,

to whom I dedicate this book, have assisted me at every stage in this work, and withouttheir advice and encouragement it might never have reached fruition

For their generous and learned insights that have aided me in many aspects of thisstudy, from numismatics to epigraphy and issues in philology, I thank N P Joshi, JoeCribb, Gourishwar Bhattacharya, Dieter Schlingloff, and Oskar von Hinüber The direc-tors and curators of many museums and galleries around the world have been of greatassistance in arranging for special access to Mathura sculptures and works of art used inthis study I owe much gratitude to Richard Blurton, Helmut Brinker, Joan Cummins,John Emanuel Dawson, Christine Knoke, Steven Kossak, Gerd Kreisel, Jitendra Kumar,Stephen Markel, Theresa McCullough, Forrest McGill, Moolchand, Robert Mowry, Prata-paditya Pal, Amy Poster, Girraj Prasad, Zsuzsanna Renner, S M Sethi, R C Sharma,Caron Smith, S D Trivedi, Mr Verma, and Michael Willis I also am grateful to Bertheand John Ford, Vinod Krishna Kanoria, Heidi and Helmut Neumann, and René Russekfor granting me access to their collections of Indian sculpture Catherine Glynn Benkaim,Robert Del Bonta, Brian Domitrovic, Ananda Krishna, H Tiffany Lee, Ramona Gickling,

generously aided me in various aspects of this work