A study of metaphors used in “a christmas carol” by charles dickens

THESIS A STUDY OF METAPHORS USED IN “A CHRISTMAS CAROL” BY CHARLES DICKENS Nghiên cứu phép ẩn dụ được sử dụng trong tác phẩm “Hồn ma đêm Giáng Sinh” của Charles Dickens... THESIS A ST

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

A STUDY OF METAPHORS USED IN “A CHRISTMAS

CAROL” BY CHARLES DICKENS (Nghiên cứu phép ẩn dụ được sử dụng trong tác phẩm “Hồn ma đêm Giáng Sinh” của Charles Dickens)

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

M.A THESIS

A STUDY OF METAPHORS USED IN “A CHRISTMAS

CAROL” BY CHARLES DICKENS

(Nghiên cứu phép ẩn dụ được sử dụng trong tác phẩm

“Hồn ma đêm Giáng Sinh” của Charles Dickens)

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project report entitled “A STUDY OF METAPHORS USED IN A CHRISTMAS CAROL BY CHARLES DICKENS” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master in English Language Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis

Hanoi, 2021

Vu Phuong Anh

Approved by

SUPERVISOR

Date: ………

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It has been a long journey for me to finish my thesis There are also many people who walked along with me to support and motivate me during the time of doing the research

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Ms Nguyen Thi Van Dong, Ph D., my supervisor, who has patiently and constantly supported me through the stages of the study, and whose stimulating ideas, expertise, and suggestions have inspired me greatly through my growth as an academic researcher

My thanks also go to all my lecturers at Hanoi Open University for their precious knowledge which lay the foundation for this study, my colleagues and many others whose support and encouragement help me to have this thesis accomplished Last but not least, I am greatly indebted to my family and friends for their patience, endless love, and devotion Whatever choices I have made, they have always stood by me and believed in me I am immensely thankful for all the assistance they have given to me

ABSTRACT

This thesis, entitled “A study of metaphors used in “A Christmas Carol” by Charles Dickens, discusses the issue of metaphor in linguistics Based on studies, metaphors make linguistics, literature more expressive and colorful The thesis analyzes written work focusing on metaphors that have been produced in the previous century, including both foreign and native research works on linguistics The purpose of this analysis is to gain an in-depth understanding of the role metaphor plays and what the metaphor could mean for linguistics Based on the framework of E Slave, R Galperin and Galdi, metaphor in this thesis will be analyzed by part of speech, novelty, structure and presence of departure and arrival terms

Besides using qualitative and quantitative methods to provide accurate statistics and analytical methods to give the most overview of the metaphor There are many metaphors in poetry, verses and songs, but to have a novella with metaphors like "A Christmas Carol" by Charles Dickens is undiscovered!

Therefore, with the most general theories of metaphor (definition, classification, form) and novella (definition, classification, form), we have an objective view of the necessary information in this thesis In order to explore the figure of speech in the novella “A Christmas Carol” by Charles Dickens The formative elements in the work will be analyzed, followed by: Characters and point of view The thesis will be processed following the checklist of linguistic devices Features of metaphor are concerned mostly in chapter 2 and clarified in the usage within chapter 3

Thus, the metaphor in "A Christmas Carol" serves as a foundation for analysis in literature in general and in short fiction in particular, as well as to clarify the nature

of some preferable metaphors

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

F&B: Food & Beverage

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 1 Metaphors of “A Christmas Carol” in terms of classification 41 Table 2 The frequency of metaphors in term of novella’s staves 42

Chart 3.1 According to part of speech 43 Chart 3.2 According to novelty criterion 44 Chart 3.3 According to structure 45 Chart 3.4 According to the presence of departure and arrival term 46

1.6 Significant of the study 4

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 5

1 Review of previous studies 5 1.1 Review of previous studies in English 5 1.2 Review of previous studies in Vietnamese 5

2.2.1 Definition of metaphor 10 2.2.2 Structures of Metaphor 14

2.2.3.1 E Slave’s Classification 16 2.2.3.2 R Glaperin’s Classification 17 2.2.3.3 Galdi’s Classification 17

2.3 Functions and roles of Metaphor 18

2.4.2 The structure of novella 20

39

3.2 Findings of Metaphors in “A Christmas Carol” 40 3.2.1 According to the part of speech 43 3.2.2 According to novelty criterion (I.Galperin) 43 3.2.3 According to structure (I.Galperin) 44 3.2.4 According to the presence of departure and arrival terms

REFERENCES 53

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

I Introduction

It is no exaggeration to say that language, as a communication medium, plays a fundamentally essential role in our human life Among various linguistic tools, rhetorical devices appear as a colorizing layer for the imagery-richness and the diversity, as well as the subtlety highlighter for sentences in order to deliver messages

in a deeper and more sophisticated level One of them is metaphor usage, which enhances the evocativeness and vividness for the user's expression

In reality, metaphors are frequently used common practices to convey, explain, and express ideas However, not everyone has a sufficiently thorough insight on its definition or what is involved in this rhetoric

1.1 Rationale

Learners tend to associate rhetorical techniques including metaphors with their usage and analysis in pure literature, poetry or abstract writings of any kind Basic metaphors, on the other hand, can be utilized to achieve more logical and creative outcomes in both spoken and written language

As defined by the Cambridge Dictionary, a metaphor is a common literary expression

to describe a person or thing, on the basis of referring to something resembling such subjects In a traditional sense, a metaphor is an implicit comparison How far a word's meaning can be extended is determined by the similarity Metaphor is also a kind of figurative language in which the author equates two apparently unrelated elements and thus elicits their creative connections

Metaphor usage provides an extra dimension of evocativeness and linguistic creativity to spoken and written English As a result, learners have a chance to apply metaphorical terms in speaking or writing practices to ensure that they are utilizing them correctly and sensibly

A variety of papers, books, and dissertations on metaphors have been gathered from numerous fields of expertise in both English and Vietnamese Wiji Lestari's

"Metaphors in Green Day's Lyrics" (2017), by approaching the song semantically

and incorporating the metaphor based on Lakoff and Johnson’s theory in several stanzas, discusses the metaphors that Green Day used in their song lyrics

Furthermore, in “Figurative Language” (2014) by Barrbara Dancygier and Eve

emergence of metaphor, including their motivation through correlations in

experience In addition, “Metaphor - Implication and application” (2018) by Howard

R Pollio pointed out the boundaries in humor and metaphor, the explicatory metaphor

of the performer may be further expanded to the case of humor, as he said Besides

Leezenberg in her book, “Contexts of Metaphor”, she gave importance to the

contribution not only of Western but also non-Western thinkers

Phạm Thị Xuân Rớt, in her 2007 thesis "Tìm hiểu phương thức ẩn dụ trong tiếng Việt

(thể hiện qua Ca dao trữ tình, Thơ tình Xuân Diệu và thơ tình Xuân Quỳnh)", gives

some attributes that increase literary perception, as well as the ability to examine

thoroughly and sensuously written works "An Analysis of Metaphors in the Poems

of Edgar Allan Poe" (2017) by Ade Puadah also describes ten categories of

metaphorical language contained in the literal works mentioned above Furthermore, different kinds and underlying meanings of metaphorical expressions are revealed

thanks to Habib Syarwani’s findings in “Analysis of metaphors in Emily Dickinson's

poems” (2017).

All of the mentioned work above just discusses the semantic, syntactic metaphor through poems, songs However, none of the above studies concern classification of figure of speech as metaphor in novella (a kind of short novel) This is the reason for

me to conduct a metaphor analysis of Charles Dickens' genius work "A Christmas Carol"

1.2 Aims and objectives

1.2.1 Aims of the study

Basing on the interest in studying metaphors, the thesis aims at exploring metaphors used in the novella “A Christmas Carol” by Charles Dickens in order to devote a large space to elaborate on reasons for characteristics of metaphor, working mechanism of metaphor and then proposes suggestions on its application in language learning and teaching with kinds of text related to literary works

1.2.2 Objectives of the study:

- To describe the classification of metaphors based on the classification framework

of E Slave, R Galperin and Galdi used in “A Christmas Carol” by Charles Dickens

-To investigate the used of metaphors in a certain novella based on the classification framework of E Slave, R Galperin and Galdi used in “A Christmas Carol” by Charles Dickens

- To suggest some implications of using metaphors in language learning and teaching for English learners with kinds of text related to literary works

1.3 Research questions

- What are the classifications of metaphors applied in “A Christmas Carol” based on

the framework of E Slave, R Galperin and Galdi?

- How metaphors are used in a certain novella as “A Christmas Carol” by Charles

Dickens?

- What are suggestions of using metaphors in language learning and teaching effectively for English learners with kinds of text related to literary works?

1.4 Methods of the study

With the purpose of finding out how metaphor works in English’s literary work by Charles Dickens, linguistic orientation is based on to provide expected research results In this study, various methods are used to achieve the objectives such as quantitative method, qualitative method Each step of the study requires another relevant method However, as the aim of the thesis suggests, the method which works best in this study is qualitative, pointing out the classification of metaphor used in Charles Dickens’s work By using this method, in which English is considered to be the source language, we can illustrate the author’s meaning in the context

The researcher also uses quantitative methods carrying out the surveys to collect the data of metaphor use for better statistical analysis

In the study, the data is investigated on the basis of mentioned content The collected data will be processed to investigate some features of metaphor’s meaning and structures Therefore, after being collected, the selective material of metaphor is sorted out to serve as illustration examples for the analysis of approaching Based on this, the author has tried to find out how metaphor works in the contexts of selected examples by Charles Dickens so as to apply in novella individuals

The data collected from the reliable resources is put under a process of statistical analysis using a descriptive method They are first computed and analyzed by statistical procedures to find the answers to the research questions

The data are collected by conducting documentary techniques The sources for the analysis are from materials and references written by linguists in English The steps for analyzing the data are started from classifying the data into each important language branch of metaphor, counting the percentage, and describing the findings

1.5 Scope of the study

Academically, metaphor will be mainly examined in written language in literary work

by Charles Dickens The thesis will focus mainly on classification of metaphor in literary works through “A Christmas Carol”

The data used in the study are cited in the well-known novel “A Christmas Carol” by Charles Dickens

1.6 Significant of the study

Theoretically, this thesis can help the language researchers and learners understand more the use of metaphor in literature written by famous writer: Charles Dickens The result of the study could partly lay the foundation for the next creations relating

This chapter shows the interest of student in the chosen thesis, pointing out the aims

as well as the objectives, the research questions, the scope, the significance, the methods and the structural organization of the study

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter will give the brief review of related literature and theoretical background of every matter mentioned in the study

Chapter 3: METAPHORS USED IN “A CHRISTMAS CAROL” BY CHARLES DICKENS

This chapter plays an important role in the whole thesis, it illustrates and analyzes the collected data

Chapter 4: CONCLUSION

This chapter presents the recapitulation of the study, the limitations of the study and some suggestions for further study

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

1 Review of previous studies

1.1 Review of previous studies in English

Let us start by considering the fact, Lakoff and Johnson have explained in "Metaphors

We Live By" (1980) that metaphor is the fundamental building block in shaping our

real-life thoughts and actions In addition, "Introduction to Functional Grammar"

(1989) brings out Halliday’s definition of grammatical metaphor In Galperin’s research (1981), metaphor is described as a link connecting lexical and contextual

meanings: "based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties of two

corresponding concepts" He also distinguishes between Genuine (living) metaphors

and Trite (dead) metaphors, which he believes to be two primary metaphorical categories

According to Reddy in "Metaphor and Thought" (1979), metaphorical expressions

constitute the majority of the ordinary daily language we use Because of its fundamental and pervasive cognitive nature, metaphor is expected to appear in both spoken and sign modalities The natural language created by those two types share many common essential characteristics, including linguistic structures, processes, restrictions, and communication functions (Sandler and Lillo-Martin, 2006) Linguist John I has also claimed that metaphor can be regarded as the most significant kind of figurative language use through the traditional lens

Another famous linguistic is Max Black, who has stated in his “More about

Metaphor” (1979): “…selection of the "targets" of the theory; classification of metaphors; how metaphorical statements work; relations between metaphors and similes; metaphorical thought; criteria of recognition; the "creative" aspects of metaphors; the ontological status of metaphors.”

Above are some typical studies on metaphor as pointed out by linguists as well as researchers In addition, the information, content as well as the classification based

on the theories of the above characters is a great stepping stone for students to explore and exploit more

1.2 Review of previous studies in Vietnamese

A large variety of research on metaphor have interested English learners in Vietnam,

among which is the graduation thesis "A research on metaphor of love in English" by

Đỗ Thanh Nhàn where she claimed that "metaphors reflect specific aspects of each

second study is conducted by Châu Ngọc Thạch Anh in her M.A Thesis "A study on

conceptual metaphor of 'dream' in English and Vietnamese songs" She investigates

the conceptual metaphor from the cognitive linguistics perspective, identifies and compares the conceptual metaphor of "dream" in English and Vietnamese songs

According to Lưu Thị Phương Thảo in her thesis “A study on metaphors in English

advertising slogans for food and beverage” (2016), she pointed out the most common

type of metaphor used in F&B advertising slogan through 40 selected slogans with detailed classification, based on Johnson and Lakoff’s

In the M.A Thesis "A study of metaphor in newspapers (English versus Vietnamese)"

(2011), Hồ Vi Nữ Mỹ Linh discusses about the similarities and differences, along with the appearance frequency of metaphors of in both English and Vietnamese newspaper Her research also contributes to the linguistic research resources in general and specifically the understanding in metaphor comparison by English and Vietnamese This is obviously of great assistance for writers, readers, instructors, students, and translators to have a more effective usage and comprehension of languages

“The semantics of metaphors of love in English and Vietnamese songs” (2017) by

Nguyễn Thị Lệ Phương presented how metaphors of love are used in English and Vietnamese, determining the similarities and differences of metaphor of love in bilingual songs and lastly, she gave out the common errors in comprehending the metaphorical images in loves song and the solutions

According to Trần Thị Minh Thu in her study “Ẩn dụ về con người trong ca dao Việt

Nam dưới góc nhìn văn hoá” (2015), she illustrated the metaphor used in traditional

folk in Vietnam normally the familiar features, showing the quintessences in the culture of Vietnamese She highlighted some people's images and analysed them in a cultural view

In general, the above studies cover most aspects of metaphor including sociology, sociolinguistics, and discourse analysis However, only metaphors in the form of theory and lyrics were processed, while there has been no research for written materials such as literary works I strongly desire to reach a translating goal and have overall clarification of metaphor in Charles Dickens’s novella to put into consideration

in both written and oral form We are able to see its usage in literature, too we will even see it in advertisements, posters, slogans, newspapers, magazines, cartoons, etc.Figure of speech is necessary for every kind of linguistics To bold the aim of use, it's designed to create a comparison and make a dramatic factor while writing or speaking Basically, it's a figurative language which contains one word or phrase it's going to be a simile, a metaphor or personification to convey the meaning aside from the literal meaning it's usually classified as different schemes The standard sequence

or pattern of words is thought of as a scheme We usually perform basic four operations as below to make the specified effect:

of Cards, etc Therefore, in this section, the concern about figure of speech along with its various classifications with examples will be presented

2.1.2 An overview of classifications of figure of speech

In each literal statement or common usage, figure of speech is used to emphasize, clarify, or exaggerate in all kinds of language Constituting an elemental part of language, figures of speech are found in folk literatures as well as in poetry and fiction and in everyday conversation For all kinds of spreading information, such as: Advertising slogans, newspaper headlines, the captions of cartoons, and the mottoes

of families and institutions often use figures of speech, generally for amusing,

evocative, or apparent purposes Several parlances of sports, jazz, journalism, business, politics, or any specialized groups abound in figurative language.

2.1.2.1 Common figures of speech and their function

It must be remembered that most figures in everyday speech are formed by enlarging the vocabulary of what is already closely and better known to what is less well known Thus, metaphors (implied resemblances) transferred from human division are commonly broadened to nature or inoperative objects as in the expressions “the snout

of a glacier,” “the bowels of the earth,” or “the eye of a needle.” Whereas, comparisons to natural phenomena are frequently applied to other areas, as in the expressions “a wave of enthusiasm,” “a ripple of excitement,” or “a storm of abuse.” Use of simile (a comparison, usually indicated by “like” or “as”) is exemplified in

“He is as sober as a judge” or “They looked like peas in a pod.” Personification (speaking of an abstract quality or inanimate object as if it were a person) is exemplified in “Money talks”; metonymy (using the name of one thing for another closely related to it), in “I’m a Silicon Valley guy,” where “Silicon Valley” means

“the one who can do anything”); synecdoche (use of a part to imply the whole), in expressions such as “brass” for high-ranking military officers or “hard hats” for construction workers

Figurative speech also contains another usage in hyperbole (deliberate exaggeration for the sake of effect), as in “She's as tall as a beanpole”; the rhetorical question (asked for effect, with no answer expected), as in “How can I tell her?”; litotes (conscious understatement in which emphasis is achieved by negation), as in “It’s no fun to be sick”; and onomatopoeia (imitation of natural sounds by words), in such words as

“crunch,” “gurgle,” “plunk,” and “splash.”

To mention its function, with the aim to enrich the meaning in all kinds of genres in literary as well as create interest in readers By applying contrasting measurement and stylistic devices, the figure of speech has broadened the reader's vision and imagination

Markedly, the figures of speech, to put in another way, appearing in daily speech may also be acquisitioned in literature The compelling poetry and prose, however, are more fully concerned, more artistic, and much more subtle; it thus has a stronger academic and affecting impact, is more memorable, and sometimes devotes to an area and extent of cooperation and offers far beyond the capacity of the casual demotic use of imagery Indeed, the Old and New Testaments of the Bible—an example of a

work rich in simile, metaphor, personification, and parallelism (which is often used

in Hebrew poetry)—is an important literary influence

2.1.2.2 The major categories

Notably, it can be stated that figure of speech plays a pivotal role in the linguistic era Explicitly, in European languages, figures of speech are generally divided into five major categories:

(1) figures of resemblance or relationship,

(2) figures of emphasis or understatement,

or contradictory objects or situations), as in the Petrarchan conceit, which was popular with Renaissance writers of sonnets, an abstract comparison most often made

by a anguish lover of a beautiful beloved to some physical object—e.g., lips to cherries; parallelism (wherein phrases, sentences, and paragraphs are arranged so that they equity one element with another of equal importance and similar wording.Then, the second category encompasses figures of insistence or distortion To clarify, examples contain hyperbole; litotes; rhetorical question; antithesis (strongly conflicting ideas arranged in sharp proximity), as in the saying “Art is long, and Time

is fleeting”; climax (achieved by the arrangement of units of meaning—words, phrases, clauses, or sentences—in an ascending order of importance With attention

to the other figures of emphasis or restraint compose ambiguity (an apparently incompatible allegation in order to capture consideration and enrage fresh thought),

self-as in Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s widely known principle “Less is more”; oxymoron (a word or group of words that is self-controvert), as in “bittersweet”; and irony (wherein the real meaning of a statement is covered or disprove), as in Jane Austen’s

famous beginning to Pride and Prejudice: “It is a truth universally acknowledged,

that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.”

Following, the third category contains of figures of sound, e.g., alliteration (the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words or stressed syllables), as in

“dead as a doornail”; repetition (use of the same word or phrase again and again for emphasis

Consequently, the fourth category involves verbal games and gymnastics To be sure, these include pun (a hilarious use of a word in such a way as to suggest alternative meanings or functions, or a play on words), as the dying Mercutio quips in

Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet: “Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a

grave man”; and cipher (the backtrack of the letters of a word or group of words to

produce other words that possess meaning, preferably bearing some logical relation

to the original), as in Florence Nightingale into “Flit on, cheering angel.”

Finally, the fifth category consists of errors, including malapropism (verbal blunder

in which one word is reintegrated by other akin in sound but contrary in meaning), as

when Amy, the youthful of the March sisters in Louisa May Alcott’s Little Women,

groans that her acquaintance “label your father if he isn’t rich” though she means

“libel,” thus depicts her hilarious attempts to sound more grown-up; periphrasis (a collateral or indirect demeanor of writing or speaking), as exemplified by Charles

Dickens in the dialogue of the character Wilkins Micawber, who arrives in David

as those of poetics and aesthetics

Since the primeval times, philosophers had considered the potentiality of a meticulous expression The art of rhetoric was highly extended in both Greek and Roman civilizations Abundant dissertations about an attractive expression had been completed And it is the metaphor that was the central figure of ancient rhetoric.Particularly, Aristotle attempted to give the initial definition of metaphor He stated that was a transmission of the name of an object onto another object; which can be from a classification to an item, from an item to a category, or by correlation In other

words, Aristotle mentioned that metaphor is admission of objective properties being objectively shared by objective referents in the objective world.

Notwithstanding, the linguist M Dolgan points out that Aristotle’s definition also implies an academic classification of metaphors, the first classification in esthetic theory To illustrate, he affirms that from the point of view of contemporary classification of stylistic devices, Aristotle’s notion cannot be approved entirely, as it makes no discrepancy between metaphor, metonymy and other stylistic devices, but places them all in the field of metaphor

In addition, the Romanian linguist Tudor Vianu also blames Aristotle, because the following notion had stated its types and varieties, oppositely, he hadn’t specified why it appeared

Thereby, the next to consider the dilemma of metaphor during the ancient period was Cicero, in his work “De Oratore” Forthwith, he was also the one to reside upon the motivation of evolution of this notion Under those circumstances, Cicero shows that the metaphor appeared due to a certain inadequacy of language There was no explanation for the advanced notions approaching from human involvement, thus, he says, they (the notions) had to be entitled by the old ones At the same time, Cicero focuses on the fact that just as the clothes appeared firstly to assure the human body from cold, later becoming embroiders, the same way, the metaphor, firstly prescribed

by absence of language, became later an object of rhetoric contentment

Thereupon, other ancient masterminds also used the term “ornament”, but when they accomplished, they either expunged the metaphor from their tract (as Aristotle, who said that any name can be brutality, be it metaphor or ornament; and as Quintilian, who acclaimed between “ornaments of language” and “stylistic devices”, dividing them into two independent categories Quintilian presented that only the consecutive aspects of language can be its ornaments: purity, vitality and clarity He defined an

ornament as follows: “an expression cannot be called an ornament of language if it

is only clear and plausible The first step to the perfection of an expression is to grasp with our mind its object; then it is necessary for one to be able to depict it by means

of the word, and the third step is to give it decorous shine, so, this is, truly, an ornament”.) or they disperse it over the aspect of the stylistic device, as Cicero Thus,

the prevailing point is that in both cases, the notion of the “ornament” was attributed

a conclusive semantic content

Basically, Cicero’s explanation endured as a foundation for many generations of writers of all sorts of Poetics and Rhetorics Nevertheless, in the XVIII th century, Giambatista Vico contemplated it necessary to improve the consideration of

metaphor as an “ornament” In his greatest work “Scienza Nuova” (1725), Vico

analyzed a poetic phase of the human spirit, which is preceding the philosophic one,

to which the contemporary scientists belonged

Indeed, during that poetic stage, people thought up to a living universe, where each thing maintains a physical and a spiritual life, related to a human being’s Contributing to the only means to comprehend the world and to broaden the experience was to incorporate new objects of the latter with those given by body’s and soul’s own experience Essentially, Vico is said to be the first theoretician of primeval animism Thus, according to primitive metaphysics, man is disposed to name the obvious aspects of the universe, by words originally used to connote the realities of the body Thus, people speak of the “mouth of a river, the foot of the mountain, or of the smile of the sky” Any metaphor is essentially a personification.All things considered, G Vico assumed that the same wish (to create things by naming them) is at the base of primeval sciences, in which new, alien things are equipped with life and passions, very much like the human ones He also contemplates that this was the way the myths were created, and metaphors are nothing more but myths

T Vianu, in his work “Problems of Style and Literary Art” correlates Cicero’s and

Vico’s expectations of the metaphor He shows the following: for Cicero, the metaphor was the result of a logical procedure, a mere alteration of notions, whereas for Vico it is the commodity of a mentality, which is different from ours – of a prelogic mentality For Vico, the basis of the metaphor is a distinctive understanding

of the world, a special metaphysics characteristic for the first phase of the advancement, which connects primitive poetry with other products of the human spirit at the same level of its extension

Later on, in the XIX century, Vico’s discovery collected a minor modification During the prosperous German Romantic movement, Jean Paul Richter affirmed that the metaphor is the result of an ancient phase, the development of the human spirit, but still it is not the product of its first phase For Richter, metaphor arrived when man was already not a part of nature Thus, being alienated from nature, man wished

to understand it, in this way contributing it his own self, thus commanding the first metaphors.

By and large, a special interest highlights the viewpoint of the above-mentioned Romanian linguist T Vianu Except the fact that he presents a definition of the metaphor, which is simple and easy to understand – “metaphor is the expressed result

of an implied comparison”; he also affirms that metaphor is degraded in every language He bolds it by saying that desiring to name some spiritual realities, people, being incapable of conceiving new terms merely associated them with some delicate realities, naming the first, abstract ones, by the latter, slightly developing them, thus accomplishing a methodization process

As a rule, Vianu also achieves that metaphor is intellectually sustained by the perception of a certain unity of the objects by means of the discrepancy between them From the logical point of view, metaphor refers to a considerably high level of absorption, because the mind (in order to realize the metaphor) has to execute a double procedure of elimination Firstly, by means of metaphoric transfer, it must remove all the differences that would be able to burden the consolidation from all the related terms Secondly, from all the acquaintance features it should contain only the necessary ones, in order not to interfere with the impression of difference, all the rest having to be eliminated A total unification between the terms, Vianu says, does not produce a metaphor The latter can only emerge when the realization of the terms’ unity, between which the transfer took place, coexists with the realization of their difference

Henceforth, the resemblance metaphor is based on, T Vianu says that mind has retained necessary similarities in order to guide itself towards the recognition of a metaphor Thus, the linguist concludes that the metaphor is not an original procedure/act of the spirit, but it belongs to a later period, contemporary with the emergence of a greater power of human intelligence

Contributing to this notion, the Russian linguist I R Galperin in his book “Stylistics”

introduces the conception we are acquainted to, but his definition is thoroughly

contrary to all the previous ones, as it says that “metaphor is a relation between the

dictionary and conceptual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts” We can see

another formulation of the well-known stylistic device It is already not a mere

With attention to an even more fascinating explanation - of the source of metaphor is performed by R Jakobson He remembers the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations

as a basis for metonymy and metaphor In the case of metonymy, an object is conveyed by the name of another object, which is corresponding to the previous one

on the basis of involvement – this being obverse to syntagmatic relations The case

of metaphor is presented as a situation where the object is named by the name of a related object But even here the relation of similarity is preserved No matter what formulation the definition of metaphor does receive, it is necessarily based on the instinctive category of similarity

2.2.2 Structures of Metaphor

To put it another way, we could see that metaphor was defined as a change of meaning, which is based on an elliptical comparison In addition, we will try to highlight various linguists’ results of studies and their opinions, focusing on the formation and the coordination of metaphors

Specifically, the English critic I.A Richards names the tenor and the vehicle as the components of a metaphor, with the tenor attributing to the concept, object, or person meant, and the vehicle being the image that transfers the weight of the comparison.Besides, the Romanian linguist E Slave recognizes that from the structural point of view, metaphor assumes the existence of two paradigmatically distinct entities However, in certain situations based on some cooperation the relationship of opposition is inadequate Thus, in the content plan, new kinship appears between the term with the logical meaning, and the one with the figurative one As an example,

E Slave points out the association between the words “a vorbi” (to talk) and “a latra”

(to bark), which are actually noticeable entities Slave achieves that the metaphoric process is based on the breaking of semantic and syntagmatic relations of implication (to bark – a dog, to talk – a person) Moreover, the Romanian linguist calculates that unlike the case of oral abrogation, in the case of metaphoric neutralization, it is possible to establish the context where figurative expression appears

According to E Slave, metaphor consists of two terms: a metasememe as a departure

term (D) and an arrival term (A), which is connected to the first These notions arenothing but the traditional figurative and logical terms, but in a new acceptance In fact, the departure term corresponds to Richard’s concept of tenor, and the arrival term to the concept of vehicle

Indeed, these two terms are contained according to componential analysis E Slave

advises of B Pottier’s apprehension about two kinds of semes (specific and generic), and of the great role of these semantic features in the process of metaphorisation For instance, “to talk” is analyzed in terms of the following semes:

- to emit sounds

- to articulate words

- to express human thoughts and feelings

Similarly, “to bark” is analyzed as composed of other characteristic features:

1’) to emit sounds

2’) to repeat short jerky sounds

3’) to render characteristic states for the dog species

Thus, “to bark” is the metasememe, the departure term, and “to talk” is the arrival

term

Furthermore, a new aspect is to be bold in the relation bounded by the terms: a crossing relation is established between D and A These are two crossed sets of

semes, and the interchange represents the so-called emissary term Revising the

above-mentioned scheme, the semes are assigned in the following way:

As can be seen from the graphic, the two operations, which resolve the reorganization

of semes in the metasememic process, are elimination and/or adding of semes The

above-presented scheme presents the frequent semantic basis of the two terms and the aversion between them Our attention will be concentrated on the metaphor itself,

as a departure term (D) It actually takes semes from A, D’s original semes being

a suggestive aspect: “to talk jerkily, as if rendering specific states characteristic for

the dog”.

The mechanism of metaphor is based on the fact that the denotative term, which belongs to its semantic structure, does not disappear totally On the opposite, it is their preservation, which is a necessary condition for the realization of the “manifest” metasemantic deviation

E Slave illustrates that the complication of metaphoric structure is due to one of the fundamental features of language – redundancy Without it, there wouldn’t have been any semantic deviation Quoting S Marcus and M Ţuţescu, the Romanian linguist affirms that there are seams that determine one’s possibility to appoint between different units These semes are performed in the context and are called by S Marcus constant semes or clasemes According to his viewpoint, clasemes are unity factors between the units of an assertion

On the whole, applying this theory to the mentioned example, it can be recognized that “to bark” is adaptable with the clasemes [-human] and “to talk” with [+human] Any abuse by semantic alteration of this compatibility, or, in other words, of selective restriction, forming a metaphoric structure in the framework of the departure term

2.2.3 Types of Metaphor

It must be remembered that as a rhetorical device as metaphor, linguists have discovered and proposed different types of it However, due to the limitation of the essay and of the content of the novella, I will mention he classification of metaphors from 3 linguistics, followed by: E Slave' s , R Galperin's and Galdi

2.2.3.1 E Slave’s Classification

According to E Slave, this linguistic has separated between two basic types of metaphor They differ in structure and especially in the relation and presence of the departure and arrival term

In addition, the implicit metaphors use or consist of only the departure term The arrival term is mentioned indirectly and has to be assumed

Besides, the explicit metaphor uses concurrently both terms, clarifying by means of its syntagmatic structure, that’s why the gap between the two terms can be great

From the point of view of classes, Slave splits implicit metaphors into nominal and

verbal She also highlights that verbal metaphor is stronger than the nominal one,

because if the latter can be reduced to a mere substitution (A=B), then the first one (verbal) is more complex, as the verb accepts a double substitution function Of

course, E Slave points out adjectival metaphor, but she regards it less important and structurally similar to the verbal metaphor.

2.2.3.2 R Glaperin’s Classification

Another key point in classification of metaphor is from R Galperin He arranges the metaphors according to their degree of unexpected Based on this criterion, there can

be genuine, trite/dead and sustained/prolonged metaphors.

Genuine metaphors are described as “definitely accidental, quite unpredictable”

They have their special place in language: “they are regarded as belonging to

language-in-action, i.e speech metaphors”.

Trite or dead metaphors are also known as frozen metaphors, fossilized metaphors,

and lexicalized metaphors Originally, they were words that were used as metaphors, then their literal meaning had been devastated and combined into the language and lost all its technical features

Galperin assigns several terms to illustrate the sustained metaphor The primary

metaphor, the one that needs to be renovated is called central image and the words that refer to it - contributory images

Variations of this case are possible, especially in the case when the fundamental image is not given, but can be referred to, if judging upon the contributing images, which indicates it and creates the missing images in our imagination

Therefore, we could detect Galperin’s classification of metaphors, but despite the fact

his work, “Stylistics”, is well known and widely used, if compared to other

classifications, done for example, by E Slave

2.2.3.3 Galdi’s Classification

Performed by the Romanian linguist Ladislau Galdi, the classification is somewhat similar to Galperin’s formulations But first of all, he presents some views upon the nature of metaphor According to his opinion, metaphors are either compressed similes or more or less subjective identifications, based on a common feature, obvious

2.3. Functions and Roles of Metaphor

To point out, the provenance and role of metaphor are closely attached In the mentioned work, T Vianu tries to highlight the acquaintance between the former original functions of this trope and its later functions The answer to this question is found in G Vico’s works Vianu regards Vico the modern founder of the philosophy

above-of metaphor Defining the origin above-of the expression, he also affirms some reasons for its emergence For the Italian thinker, metaphor appeared as an acceptable tool of an animist mentality (as it was mentioned before) The lack of humans in language can

Philosophy flourishes in metaphoric processes For example, Hegel studied that the laws of universal development are nothing but human intelligence’s individual laws, this being a metaphoric correlation Thus, he sets up anthropocentrism in the field of philosophy Vico investigated that the human spirit thinks metaphorically only in its initial phase, the abstract one But Biese combined that even philosophy couldn’t exist without metaphors and that embody analogies are tools of cognition even in philosophy’s most complex operations

Expressively, personifying analogy takes account of an important part in the formation of the first concept of human spirit, although not an absolute part Later, the metaphor lost its old importance, when the spirit replaced it with other domains

of the universe Recently, the evolution of personifications in new perception is considered to be a spiritual archaism

Ortega, quoted by Vianu, also states a function proper of the metaphor: “We use the

metaphor in order not only to make our thoughts comprehensible for others by means

of using signs Metaphor is essential for the ability to think of certain difficult objects

It is more than a means of expression: it is an essential means of cognition.”

Furthermore, Ortega also points out an interesting difference between poetic and scientific metaphor The former with poetic metaphor, contains a pleasant exaggeration, which makes a strong appeal to our fancy Whereas the scientific metaphor arrives when the spirit retains only decisive features from the identification

of two objects It arises when these necessary characteristics are needed to observe some phenomena, which otherwise would be impossible to perceive Lastly, he achieves that the poetic metaphor performs a progress from less to more information, whereas the scientific metaphor, vice versa, goes from more to less

The two fundamental metaphors investigated by Ortega y Gasset and endlessly studied by cognition theories were the following: the metaphor of consciousness as a board, where the impressions are listed and the metaphor of consciousness as a boat, where ideas are gathered in content In case metaphor can help the spirit during the process of cognition, then it can progress to replace one metaphor by another, or even

to give up using any metaphor and discover the reality only by notional means.All the rest of the functions consist in the following:

The psychological function consists of the fact that there are acquaintance points between such mental forms as dreams and symbols, and metaphor They have a skin structure as both of them establish connections between two planes, and both are symbols

The aesthetical function can be diminished to the much dwelled upon before ornamental function It means that metaphor is a means to perceive and penetrate the world of the beauty of language

The function of liberation is related to the cathartic or purification function of art in general In a similar way, metaphor comprehends a purification and a liberation of the writer that creates it by creating an aesthetic value

But still, despite the opinions of the classical theories, the philosophic function of metaphor, in our opinion, illustrates the absolute value, as metaphor highlights a means of cognition of reality and of human mental models It allows us to understand the abstract structure of the mind’s representations

2.4 Novella

2.4.1 Definition

A novella is an individualistic novel, shorter than a novel, but longer than a short story Novella consists of narrative and structural elements of long stories, but they usually concern only one point of view.

Indeed, there is no page number or set number of words or content that establishes a novella, but a novella is usually restricted between 30,000 and 60,000 words

2.4.2 The structure of novella

To begin with, the most accessible difference between a novel and a novella is the page length and word count Nevertheless, in addition to this slight difference, novella has many constitutional and particular features that make them their own independent writing type

Traditionally, a novella follows the three act or five act structure The contents are divided into acts, which will comprise the whole story Even, there are some outlines told in one single act, or one-act play The famous others interest in many acts, as follows Shakespeare's works, with five-act structure into his plays Due to the limit

of the thesis, we will consider the three-act structure, as for the mentioned work of Charles Dickens

Basically, the three-act represents the beginning, the progressing and the summary

In mostly three-act stories, about 50 percent of the main plot appears in the second act, with a quarter percent for the first act and the rest for the final one

·Act one: This section starts with an inspirational action, exposition and turning point

to the next act This part illustrates the foundation to establish the whole story, for instance: the ordinary world of the story’s main character Before getting to the next part, an inciting incident may occur, showing the protagonist out of their normal world and into the main plot of the story There may be some sort of turning point that provokes the action into act two

·Act two: This is the act that plays an important role in the whole story A plot’s intermediate act builds an ascending action that approaches a midpoint, then leads to

a crisis This act will boost the net of the main character’s journey, even affirming the challenges to his/herself to expose Before the act is over, another turning point

to progress to the last act

·Act three: At the end of act two, there is a turning point to bold for the last act, as

we have known for pre-climax This includes events leading up to a climactic confrontation with choices: They must either prevail or perish Launching the actual

climax leads to the last stage, as we called denouement In this act, the event/incident will be solved, the climax deserts into daily routine.

2.4.3 Genres of the novella

Most novellas are separated into several types In other words, you will not find novella far from these classifications, but of course there are exceptions When you start to write your first novella, think about which of these categories are alluring to you as a reader and writer, and what story ideas you might have that qualify these types that favor the novelette format

· Literary novellas: Literary novellas usually explore character attitude at the consumption of more complicated plots Famous examples of literary novella consist of: John Steinbeck's "Rat and Man", Ernest Hemingway's "The Old Man and the Sea" and Joseph Conrad's "Heart of Darkness" A novella presents a big picture compared

to a short story that presents only one aspect of life, or one side of the story It also illustrates a broad image for the reader to view the story through the era in which it

is presented For every writer, the novel is a compelling tool for presenting philosophical, historical, and political perspectives history, society, culture and ethics…

· Inspirational novellas: Inspirational novellas are usually appealing stories that attract readers of all ages Best-selling inspirational novella include Antoine de Saint Exupéry's "The Little Prince" and Paul Coelho's "The Alchemist."

Novella can be categorized into different styles like supernatural, horror, fantasy, romance, western, mystery, adventure, etc When concerning a novella, special consideration should be paid to plot, features, setting, theme, and language This kind

of novella is usually divided into chapters with an individual storyline and suitable length “Heart of Darkness” by Joseph Conrad and “Death in Venice” by Thomas Mann are some notable examples of novels published under practice

Each genre also has its own features If you are implicated in writing about a particular genre, it is essential to read many books about that genre to learn more about it and understand what the reader should expect

The plot concentrates on a crime, often murder The content's central conflict is between someone trying to clarify a crime and the criminal's attempts to hide his tracks At the same time, this kind of novella is set up to attract readers.

The protagonist is usually someone who tries to solve a crime It can be a real detective or a private citizen joining for personal reasons The authors use descriptive text to create confusion and often an atmosphere of danger In addition, the author will give clue in order to solve that problem

2.4.3.2 Sci - Fi

Science fiction is a kind of plot that is unreal The imaginary part of science fiction

is based on known scientific facts

For example, if there is time travel in a science fiction book, it will be done by technology, not by waving magic wands Read more about writing science fiction here

2.4.3.3 Fantasy

Like science fiction, fantasy is a genre of fiction But the interesting part is often related to magic, whereas the fantasy part of science fiction is related to science or technology

Science fiction writers create fantasy worlds These could actually be new worlds, i.e an invented planet Either this could be our world in the future, or with some innovation (for example, humans have evolved to breathe underwater)

2.4.3.3 Horror

Horror fiction is so named because it focuses on creating feelings of horror and fear

in the reader Horror fiction often achieves this through the use of scary supernatural elements or gore Usually, horror novels are about an impending crime or an impending disaster…

2.4.3.4 Romance

Romance novellas are based on emotional reactions and have painful and tender scenes, and the plot is arranged to heighten emotion rather than action The ability to express such emotions is thought to represent character and experience, and to help shape positive lives and social relationships

Romantic novels are often written about love and passion The main focus is on two characters who love each other but have problems or obstacles that keep them apart, and lastly, they have a happy ending

In romance novella, the focus is often told by the woman's point of view The reason

is mostly people who read romance novels are women, and they prefer reading from

a woman's point of view rather than a man's Romance writers tend to focus heavily

on main characters and heroines instead of spending a lot of time on supporting characters

2.4.3.5 History

Historical fiction is set in a period of time in the past, typically at least fifty years before they were written They combine a made-up story with actual details of that time period

The characters and events in these stories may be purely imaginary But the world of these stories is, as closely as possible, based on the reality of a particular historical time and place

2.5 Biography of Charles Dickens and his work: A Christmas Carol

Charles Dickens (1812 - 1870), a writer, received much love for his great contributions to classical English literature He was the literary quintessence of the Victorian era with unique and interesting stories His works included "A Christmas Carol", "David Copperfield", "Desolate House", "The Story of Two Cities", "Great Expectations" and "Our Mutual Friend"

Dickens was more well-known in his lifetime than any other writer in the past Many

of his works can attract simple and complex people, poor people and queens, and the development of technology and the quality of his works quickly spread his fame all over the world

Dickens left Portsmouth when he was young His happiest childhood was spent in Chatham (1817-1822), and he often mentions this area in his novels From 1822, he lived in London until 1860, when he moved permanently to the Gedhill Country House near Chatham His origin is middle-class, if he is newly discovered and unstable and respected One grandfather was a domestic servant and the other was a corruption criminal His father was a clerk in the Navy Salary Office, and his salary was high, but his extravagance and incompetence often brought economic embarrassment or disaster to the family (Some of his failures and his enthusiasm were dramatized in part of the autobiography of Mr David Copperfield.)

Published in 1843, the aspect of life was conveyed by the great English writer Charles Dickens through his work “A Christmas Carol”, remaining intact to this day - when material values are gradually crowding out spiritual ones.

This is a "song" that emerges from the author's life experience, observations in life, and good wishes for the future

The story vividly portrays the stingy, grumpy Ebenezer Scrooge; however, there have been great changes in thoughts, feelings and awareness of human values after the visit

of "supernatural guests" such as the wandering ghost Jacob Marley and the three Ghosts of Christmas: Past, Present and Yet – To - Come, so that he can finally become the person who brings the benevolent value of Christmas to everyone

Ebenezer Scrooge himself embodies harsh winter But every winter must pass so that the joyful spring can spread everywhere So, even though Scrooge's heart is cold and harsh, deep inside it still sparkles with a warm fire of goodwill and humanity, and burns more and more strongly, melting the cold layer of selfish awareness when the The ghost helps him to turn the pages of his life

The work has gone beyond the framework of being a book dedicated to the annual holiday season, it is a reminder, directing people to return to noble spiritual values,

to live in accordance with the laws of life, the laws of nature humanity

Translating a classic literary work is inherently difficult, but it is even more difficult with the bilingual form Nevertheless, we can have opportunity to enjoy the talented writing style, the "speak less but make the reader think a lot" style of the ancients and then finally realize that the great meaning in the work; just as Christmas now belongs

to everyone, as Fred, Scrooge's nephew has said: "…Christmas among the rest But I

am sure I have always thought of Christmas time, when it has come round apart from the veneration due to its sacred name and origin, if anything belonging to it can

be apart from that as a good time; a kind, forgiving, charitable, pleasant time: the only time I know of, in the long calendar of the year, when men and women seem by one consent to open their shut-up hearts freely, and to think of people below them as

if they really were fellow-passengers to the grave, and not another race of creatures bound on other journeys".

2.6 Summary

Through this chapter, we have had a better overview of the definition of short story about metaphor author Charles Dickens as well as his famous work "A Christmas Carol" We can also see more clearly the use of metaphor not only in poetry but also

in literary works Metaphor is inherently a way to express ideas by using images and content with equivalent meaning, to indirectly refer to the speaker's ideas and wishes

as well as refer to it In addition, we also have a better understanding of the genre of short fiction, its characteristics, genres and structure Along with that, the chapter will discuss more about metaphor, based on theoretical definitions as well as from studies from linguists One more thing, with a work as meaningful as “A Christmas Carol”,

in addition to using metaphorical measures, the author also conveys great meanings about life to this day

Metaphor is a rhetorical device very familiar in both daily life as well as in literature Most of the content of works such as poems, songs or even articles are also related to metaphor, however, the content goes into semantic, syntactic and conceptual metaphor There are many common metaphors, so, going into these metaphorical contents, we expand metaphors in another direction, classifying metaphors in novella.Basically, it can be easily seen that all three of the above statements are based on the true essence of metaphor, in order to exploit and bring out more diverse and richer aspects of this kind of figure of speech Like researcher E Slave, she has provided a clearer view of the division of metaphors into three types: Nominal, verbal and adjectival metaphors Genuine, trite and sustained metaphors are metaphors brought

by R Galperin He also pointed out very clearly the definition as well as how to distinguish between these types of metaphors In addition, the Romanian linguist Ladislau Galdi also offers some perspectives of metaphors, his classification has some similarities with R Galperin, but he focuses on the nature of metaphor In addition, "A Christmas Carol" is a literary work that cannot be missed under the sharp pen of Charles Dickens, so to be able to analyze the types of metaphors used in the article, it will obviously not only in a few aspects, but also need to be exploited in many different aspects Therefore, the combination of the above three classifications helps readers as well as language researchers have more multi-dimensional views, more suggestive of writing style, as well as the meanings that the author has expressed