Ancient discipline, modern concern geographers in the field of energy and society (2)

Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 2014 122–133 123createsthem,areferencepointinmanycasestotheireconomic status.Whilethelinesarebeginningtoblurmoreandmore,slash andburn agricultu

Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133

j o u r n a l ho me p a g e :w w w e l s e v i e r c o m / l o c a t e / e r s s

Martin J Pasqualettia, Marilyn A Brownb,∗

aArizona State University, USA

bGeorgia Institute of Technology, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 17 January 2014

Received in revised form 5 March 2014

Accepted 6 March 2014

Keywords:

Geography

Spatial analysis

Energy resources

Energy security

Landscapes

a b s t r a c t

Likeenergy,geographyisdeeplyrootedinourlives.The

rela-tionshipsbetweenenergyandsocietyaretoonumeroustofully

enumerate,tooingrainedtoboldlystandout,andtoosignificantto

overlook.Yet,despitetheirimportance,theserelationshipshave

heretofore lackeda scholarlyjournalsuitablytargeted fortheir

collectionandemphasis[1].Amongothersocialsciences,the

per-spective ofthe disciplineof geography hasbeenconspicuously

underdeveloped [2].At the sametime, scholarsin other

disci-plinesincreasinglyusegeographicalperspectivestoexaminethe

energyissuesfacingourplanet.Thistrendreflectsa“spatialturn”

that extends broadlyacrossthe physical,social, economic, and

policysciences[3,4].Asaresult,wealsoweaveintoourreview

someofthekeyconceptsandfindingsfromotherdisciplinesthat

havefocusedongeographicalaspectsofthenexusbetweenenergy

and society Our goalhereis toilluminate how geography can

enrichourunderstandingofenergyandsociety,toidentifywhat

∗ Corresponding author at: School of Public Policy, Dean’s Professor, Ivan Allen

College, Brook Byers Professor, Institute of Sustainable Systems, Georgia Institute of

Technology, DM Smith Building, Room 312, 685 Cherry Street, Atlanta, GA

30332-0345, USA Tel.: +1 404 385 0303.

E-mail address:Marilyn.Brown@pubpolicy.gatech.edu (M.A Brown).

is uniqueand helpful aboutcombining geography withenergy andsociety,toexplain someofthetechniquesand applications thathavecomefromthehands ofgeographerswho focustheir attentionatthisbusyintersection,andtosuggestareasoffuture research

1 Geographyinthestudyofenergyandsociety Acrossthelonghistoryofgeographicinquiry,themostenduring goalhasbeen tounderstandthesurface of theearth as modi-fiedbyhumanaction,that is,theculturallandscape.Ofallthe culturallandscapeshumansproduce,someofthemost idiosyn-craticcomefromourneedforenergy.Theselandscapeshavemany shapes,forms,andfunctions,includingcoalmines,expansivefields

ofdrillingrigsandwindturbines,hydroelectricdams,therounded domes of nuclearpower plants, and ever-present transmission linesthatmustconnectthosewhosupplypowerwiththosewho consumeit.Someoftheseenergylandscapes,suchasoildrilling derricks,aretemporary.OtherssuchasAlbertaoilsands develop-ment,mountain-topremovalinWestVirginia,andthe‘deadzone’ nearChernobylleavelong-lastingimprints

Whateverformtheytake,andwherevertheyexist,energy land-scapeshave oftenbeen avisible reflectionof thesociety’sthat

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.03.016

2214-6296/Published by Elsevier Ltd.

M.J Pasqualetti, M.A Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133 123

createsthem,areferencepointinmanycasestotheireconomic

status.Whilethelinesarebeginningtoblurmoreandmore,slash

andburn agriculturesuggestsanagriculturally basedeconomy,

whereasmassivestripminesandmountain-topremovalsuggest

afullyindustrialone.Astheyreadthelandscape,geographersare

tunedtosuchdifferencesandimplications

Theattentionthatthesealteredlandscapesattractfrom

geog-raphers conveys a natural curiosity about the form, function,

distribution,evolutionandpermanenceoftheworldaroundthem,

whether the territory in question is rural or urban In rural

energy locations,for example, geographers seekunderstanding

aboutorigins,purpose,temporal changes,cultureandeconomic

development,and likelypost-energydisposition Inurban

envi-ronments,geographersmightseekamplificationaboutclustering

andagglomeration,humanmigrationandrelocation,public

per-ceptions,transportationroutesandmeans,urbanmorphology,and

microclimates Takentogether,all phasesof energysupply and

demandarelikelytoattracttheinterestofgeographers.Indeed,

one might well argue that geography offers the most

expan-siveandappropriate perspectivein thestudyofenergy,at any

scale

Ofcourse,geographyisnotthelonesocialscienceinterested

in energy Historians, economists, sociologists, anthropologists,

lawyers, architects, planners—to name a few—all contribute

to our understanding The sphere of geography is, however,

particularly helpful understanding environmental and

geopo-litical ramifications of the entire supply chain In this way,

thethree elementswe are discussinghere—geography, energy,

and society—form a triangle, one that embraces within its

boundaries all the important activities that occupy our

inter-estin today’sworld Such importance has not alwaysbeen so

apparent

Untilroughly 1973,thetopicofenergy wasmostly abstract,

somethingwetookforgrantedwhenweflippedonalightswitch,

squeezedthehandleofafuelpump,orpresseddownthe

accel-eratorofourcar.TheAraboilembargochangedthat,shakingus

awaketotheeconomic,social,andpoliticalrepercussionsofour

ris-ingrelianceforenergy—especiallyoil—somethingthathadescaped

ournoticewhenitwascheapandplentiful.Soon,weweretalking

aboutOPEC,transportationchokepoints,andthepolitical

vulnera-bilitythathadcomewhilewewerenotpayingattention.Wehad

becomeoverlydependentonimportedoil

WeintheUSwerenotalone.Othercountries,suchasJapanand

theUKhadalsobecomeheavilydependentonoilimportedfrom

distantplaceslikeSaudiArabia.Asdependencyrose,sotoodid

concernsaboutnationalsecurityandtradeimbalances.Asthese

concernsincreased,sotoodidmilitarypresenceinthearea,meant

toensureoildeliverieswerenotinterrupted.Oilbecamecentral

tothelivesofthose livingintheFirstWorldandtothosewho

aspiredtojoinit.Aswestruggledtoadjusttoanewreality,we

weredriventobecomemoreknowledgeableaboutthegeography

ofoil,payingparticularattentiontosupplyingcountries,routesof

transportationanddistribution,applicationsandusesofoil,and

whatallthesefactorswouldmeaninachanging,shrinking,more

competitiveglobalmarketplace

Ataboutthesametime,earlyinthedecadeofthe‘70s,

con-cernsabout energyresources otherthan oilbegan bubbling to

thesurface.Itwasalsoatimeofrisingconsumerdemand,rapid

populationgrowth,unprecentedenvironmentallaws, increasing

intoleranceforenvironmentaldamage,andquickenedmessaging

Noenergyresourcewasimmunefromincreasedpublicscrutiny,

andcoalbecameamajortargetofattention.Althoughwehadbeen

usingcoalforoveracentury,ittookuntilthe1970sforusto

pub-licallyacknowledgethehighpriceit washavingonourhealth

and safety,plantsand animals,water supplies and,indeed, the

landscape itself.1 Geographers started contributing to studies aboutthesocioeconomicsofcoal,coalmining,powerplantsiting, anddownwindimpactsofpowerplantemissions[5–7].Whatoil hadbecomeontheinternationalstage,coalbecamewithinour bor-ders,andwestartedturningmoreandmoretonuclearpowerto generateourelectricitywithoutthetraditionalemissionsandother dangersofcoal.Thepeakofenthusiasmfornuclearpowercamein thelate1970s,whentheworldtotalofcommercialreactorscame

tomorethan400

As never before, geography and energy converged in the late 1970s and early 1980s The reason was apparent: energy demand—withallitsrepercussions—wasrisingatunprecedented rates,and thequestionsthatsurfacedwerefundamentally geo-graphical in nature.Therange of topics waswide, but initially attentionfocused onappropriate siteselection, fuel transporta-tion routing,and a wide assortmentof environmentalimpacts, particularlythosefromcoal miningandair pollution[8].Much

of the workon these problems took place in universities, but thenationallaboratoriesrampeduptheirattentionaswell.Oak RidgeNationalLaboratory,forexample,cametoeventuallyemploy aboutadozenPhDgeographersinitsenergydivision Universi-ties,nationallaboratoriesandthepublicsectorcametogetherto formtheEnergySpecialtyGroup(nowtheEnergyand Environ-mentSpecialtyGroup)oftheAssociationofAmericanGeographers

inPhiladelphia1979

Atalmostthesametime,justtwohours’drivetothenorthwest, thepartialmeltdownofanuclearreactoratThreeMileIslandwasto haveasmotheringeffectontheambitionsofnuclearpower advo-cates,andcatalyzeenergygeographersasneverbefore.Quickly, geographerswerecontributingtoourunderstandingofmanyof thespatialissuesuniquelylinkedtonuclearpower.Ironically,it turnedouttobepreparationforthefarmoreseriousaccidentjust

7yearslateratChernobyl,90milesnorthwestofKiev,Ukraine Thesetwoaccidentsmorethananyothereventsraisedpublic attentiontothehumancostsofnuclearpowerandresultedina burstofgeographicalstudies,particularlytheoverlookedmatters

ofdownwinddispersalofradioactivity,publicresponsesto emer-genciesandperceptionsofrisk,limitationstonuclearpowerplant siting,long-lastingwarningmarkers,nuclearpowerplant decom-missioning,globalproliferation,energyethics,andsocialjustice

[9–19].Many ofthese werebroughttogetherin1984withthe publicationofNuclear Power: Assessing and Managing Hazardous Technologyin1984[20]

Theseaccidentsemphasizedseveralcoregeographical consid-erations,suchassiting,dispersal,distribution,evacuationbehavior andmanyotherthemes.Thequestionmightbeasked:Whydid

it takesolong?Theanswer,inpart,isfoundinaneducational systemthathadstrippedgeographyfromthecurriculumin sec-ondaryeducationandevenuniversities;2influentialpolicymakers oftenlackedgeographicperspectiveoreventhemostbasic geo-graphicknowledge;thatis,knowingmorethanjustwherethings are,butunderstandingtheeconomicanddemographicworkings thatholdtheinhabitedworldtogether.Fortunately,thetidehas turnedandgeographyhasbeengraduallymakingitswaybackas

amoduleofpossessedknowledgeexpectedofaneducated per-son.Inpart,thisrenaissanceoccurredbecauseunderstandingthe

1 As one sign that geographers were becoming increasingly involved in study-ing the cost of coal, they invited Harry Caudill, author of the classic book on the human costs of coal, Night Comes to the Cumberlands, to give the keynote address

at the annual meeting of the Association of American Geographers, held in Louisville, Kentucky in 1980.

2 Several universities dropped geography departments, including Harvard, Yale, Stanford, and Chicago.

124 M.J Pasqualetti, M.A Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133

Fig 1 Canal originally constructed for coal transport West Virginia Photo by M.J.

Pasqualetti.

geography of energy has obvious importance to international

affairsandbusinessopportunities.Politiciansneedsuch

knowl-edge in order to effectively and appropriately enact laws and

allocateresources.Businessesneedthatinformation inorderto

makemoney

2 Citiesasenergycreations

Asnodesofconvenience,tradeand mutualprotection,cities

relyonsteadyandreliablesuppliesofenergy.Themore

success-fulcities,atleasttheearlyones,controlledwateraswell.Insuch

places,asagricultureprovidedfoodsurpluses,peoplebecame

grad-uallylessnomadic.Afterthousandsofyearsofslowevolution,cities

changed morerapidlyas theproduction and useoffossilfuels

gained traction.Thesemore concentrated formsof energy

sup-portedindustrializationandcitiesexpandedinpopulationandsize

Therewasalso,however,anincreasingseparationofcitiesfrom

theirenergysources,andtheycouldprosperonlyaslongasthey

couldrelyonsteady contributionsfrom complicatedextraction

processingandheavy-goodstransport

Today, with more choices before them, people continue to

choosetoliveincities.Inlargepart,thischoiceisbasedonthe

principaladvantageofreliablesuppliesofmanyformsofenergy

MajorcitiessuchasLondonarenowservedbywireandpipe,but

itcouldprosperevenintheearlydaysbecausecoalwascarriedin

caravelsplyingthewatersoftheNorthSeafromNewcastle.Other

cities—suchasCardiffandEdinburgh—alsoonthewater,grewnot

justwiththeuseofthecoalbutwithitsexport,nearasboth

func-tionsaretoabundantcoalmeasures.Overtheyears,energyhas

providedboththeseedandthesustenanceofcitiesasdiverseas

Baku,Houston,KuwaitCity,AbuDhabi,Singapore,andKogalym,

Russia

Over time, technologicalinnovationsand energy availability

gavepeoplemoreflexibilitytochoosewheretheywishedtolive,

includingplacesatsubstantialdistancesfromenergyresources

The key element in this has beenthe growth of an elaborate,

expensiveandcomplexenergyinfrastructurethatconsistsoftwo

essentialingredients.Mines,refineries,harbors,andpowerplants

maybeconsidered‘points’,whereasthefeaturesthatconnectareas

ofsupplytoareasofdemandare“connectors”,thatis,thewaysby

which energycouldbemoved.Inmany ways,theseconnectors

havehadthemostimpact

In theearlydays offossilfueldevelopment,coalwas

trans-ported alongpurpose-built canalswhich were,atthetime, the

least-costmeansavailable(Fig.1).Somedecadeslater,railroads

supplemented and then largelydisplaced the functionof these

canals,althoughthecanalstendedtoremaintothisday.Inboth cases,thefixedroutesdividedthefunctionsofthelandand some-timesthesocialanddemographiccharacteristicsaswell.People mightbe,forexample,fromthe“wrongside”ofthetracks Thethirdtypeofland-basedenergyconveyancehasgrownto

bethemostubiquitousandmostconspicuous—transmissionlines Suchlinesarenoticeablebecausetheyareloftyandbecausethey cantraversegreatlineardistances.However,atleasttheirelevated positionallowsactivitiesandmovementunderneath,something noteasytoenvisionwherecanalsandrailroadsexist.Nonetheless, publicresponsehasbecomeheatedtothepointofviolenceinmany locations,asthedemandforpowerlineshascomeuphardagainst theirunavoidablevisualpresence,concernaboutlandvalues,and theirsuspected effects onhuman health Considered together, transmissionlines,canals,andrailroadsarevisibleexpressionsof theconvergenceofgeography,energyandsociety

Astheenergyinfrastructurehasspreadout,proximateenergy resourceshavehadadeclininginfluenceonwherepeopleputdown roots.Phoenix,ArizonaandAtlanta,Georgia,forexample,aremore than200milesfromsignificantsuppliesofoil,naturalgas,coal, uranium,orhydro-power.Theyareentirelydependentonimports forallbutatinyfractionoftheirenergyneeds.Peopleliveinsuch citiesfortheircomfortableclimatesandstrongeconomies,butthey havelosttouchwiththesourceofenergythatkeepseverything operating.Ithasbeenadramaticreversalfromthetimewhencities werefoundedspecificallybecauseenergyresourceswerenearby Despitetheirgrowingindependencefromenergyresources,the formofcitiesstillreflectsthegiveandtakebetweenenergy, geog-raphyandsociety.Considerpopulationdensitiesandsettlement patternsinEuropeancitiessuchasLondon.ThenlookatPhoenix,

AZ(Figs.2and3).DensitiesaremanyhigherintheEuropeancity thaninPhoenixbecausethenewercitiestookshapebefore dom-inantuseof the mostflexible and convenient forms of energy andtransportation,electricityand automobiles.Onceelectricity andcarsbecameubiquitous,littleresidualattractionforhigh den-sitylivingremained.Horizontalgrowthbecamecommonplaceas peoplespreadouttoacquiremorepersonalspace.Aswiresand roadsfollowed people,electricity and automobilesbecame the mostobvioustiesbetweenenergyandsociety.Manyofthese con-siderationsofurbanformand functionhave beenaddressedby geographers,amongthemSusanOwensofCambridgeUniversity

[21,22]

3 Energygeographymatures

Asusefulaserviceascitiesprovideinillustratingthe interac-tivenatureofenergyandsocietyinday-to-daylife,theydolittle

toexplainwhythedisciplineofgeographyisanappropriate plat-formfortheirstudy.Forthat,weneedtoconsiderthedifferences betweentheviewpointsofgeographersandthosefromtheother socialsciences.Sociologyandpsychology,forexample,might con-tributetoourunderstandingofhowtopersuadecitizenstouse masstransitor install moreinsulation in theirhomes Geogra-phers,on theother hand, contributed toour understandingof spatialpatterns,interactions,influences,andpathwaysatallscales Moreover,geographerslean—bypredilectionandtraining—more heavilytowardaspatialfocusthanotherscientists,theyalsotend emphasizetheidentifyinghowandwhynaturalandhumanmeld holistically.Thisemphasisamongenergygeographershasmatured overtime,ripeningfromanearlyemphasisonmappingthe loca-tionsofenergyresources,toapointwhenenergygeographershave becomehighlyskilledatconsideringquestionsaboutlocationand development,supplyanddemand,andtheenvironmentalcostsof themultiplestepsproducedalongtheway

M.J Pasqualetti, M.A Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133 125

Fig 2 High population density in London, England Photo by M.J Pasqualetti.

Low population density in Phoenix, Arizona Photo by M.J Pasqualetti.

126 M.J Pasqualetti, M.A Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133

By thebeginning oftheIndustrial Revolution, it was

appar-entthatwhoeverlivednearandcontrolledenergyricheshadthe

opportunitytoconvertthem intofinancial wealthandpolitical

power[23–25].Manypublicationsbyenergygeographershelda

regionalflavor,includingenergybooksonNewZealand,Ghana,

theCaspianBasin,China,theUSSRandpost-SovietRussia,andthe

UnitedKingdom[26–31]

Narrowing the field of vision, geographers started adding

locationtheory,particularlyintermsoffacilitysiting,and

trans-portation and economic exchanges [32] This was followed by

closerattentiontoindividualresourcessuchascoal,fuelwood,

andoil.Later,Mannerscontinuedhiscontributionstoenergy

geog-raphy,thistimeconcentratingontheBritishcoalscene[33–37]

Indeed,thebookslistedaboveeachstressedsomethingdifferent,

includingtransportation,siting,logistics,supply,demand,markets,

andpolicy[2]

Whiletheyremindedusofthebroadapplicabilityof

geogra-phyasadisciplinaryfoundationtoenergystudies,viewedfroma

distancewefindthatnoneofthesebooksunderscoredthevalue

ofblendingenergyandsociety.Thiscamefirstfromthe

sociolo-gistFredCottrell,and 20yearslaterbyEarlCook,thenDean of

GeoscienceatTexasA&MUniversity.Cookaddedthegeographer’s

touchtowhatCottrellhadbegun,providingperhapstheearliest

bookthatblendedenergy,geographyandsocietyintoasingle

vol-umeaccessible toabroad range ofuniversitystudents [38,39]

Meanwhile,chemist-turned-geographerDanielLuten,wasdoing

somethingsimilarfromhisperch1500mileswestatUCBerkeley

[40].Subsequently,severalothergeographerscontributedinbook

formspecificallyonenergyandsociety[41–43]

4 Theroleofgeography

Foldinggeography intothe mixof energy andsociety came

as populationpressure, instantaneous communication, national

interdependency,skyrocketingdemand,shiftingpoliticalstability,

andgrowingenvironmentalawarenessbroughtusalltoatipping

point.Environmentalistswerewranglingwithdevelopersoverthe

valueofwilderness,lawswerestiffeningtoincreaseminersafety

in impoverished places like WestVirginia, powerplant

opera-torswerebeingcompelledtomorecompletelycontroltheirwater

andairemissions,social injusticewasattractingmoreattention

in Indianreservations, nuclearpowerwasbeingdismissedasa

dangerousmistake,andclimatechangewasbecominga

polariz-ingtopic.Inotherwords,peopleeverywherewererealizingthe

vitalroleofenergytothelivestheylivedandthelivestheysought

Andgeographerswereinthemiddleofthedebate

ItwasaroleGeographywasparticularlywellsuitedtoplay,

becausegeographers wereadept at recognizing and evaluating

energyissuesthatwereemergingatthemeetingofenergyand

society They sawthat social questions had becomethe

domi-nantingredientinenergydiscussions.Itwasnolongerjustabout

measuringandverifyingclimatechange,butabouttheimpactof

climatechangeonforcedmigrationfromlow-lyingareas.Itwas

notjustaboutthedispersionofpowerplantemissions,butabout

howtheseemissionsaffectedrecreationaluseofriversandlakes,

settlementpatterns,andthehealthandsafetyoflivesdownwind

Itwasnolongerjustabouthowlandscapeswerechangedbythe

extractionandprocessingofenergyresources,butwhosuffered

asaresult.Itwasnolongerenoughtoknowhowbesttomeasure

solarinsolation;itbecamemoreimportanttounderstandhowthe

useofsolarenergycouldincreasethequalityoflifeforthoseliving

withoutaccesstotraditionalpowergrids.Itwasnolongersimplya

matterofsitingnewpowerplantsbasedonthetraditional

param-etersofload,water,andfuel;itwashowtheirexpected40+years

ofoperationwouldaffectthelivesofpeoplewhowouldlivenear themandtheuseofthelandaroundthem.Inmanycases—such

ascoalandnuclearplants—peoplewerestartingtoaskwhether, giventhesocialcostsinvolved,itwassuchagoodideatooperate thematall[44].Whereasothersocialscientistshavecometostudy energy,geographerstendtoemphasizeadifferentandoftenless inclusivesetofproblems.3

5 Geographyandrenewableenergy Movingtowardthepresent,wefindgeographersincreasingly interestedinthelanduseconflictsrelatedtothedevelopmentof twosite-specificresources—geothermalandwind—andonethat canrequirelargeswathsofland—solar.Theearliestofthiswork examinedgeothermalenergyinCalifornia’sImperialValley Geog-raphersasked:isitpossibletodevelopagricultureandenergyin thesameplace,onthesameland,atthesametime,without los-ingexistingjobsorthwartingeconomicdevelopment[45–47].In

adifferentsetting,90milesnorthofSanFranciscoatTheGeysers,

asimilarquestionsurfaced:Wasitpossibletodevelopgeothermal energyinproximitytoaconcentratedareaofresortsdownwind

[48].Theseandrelatedlanduseconflicts—whichareideallysuited

togeographicalanalysis—continuetochallengegeothermalenergy

inmanyareasoftheworld,althoughinstallationsintheU.S.have largelysidesteppednewcontroversybyembracingopportunities

inlightlypopulatedareasofNevada,Utah,andIdaho.The incen-tivefortheutilitycompaniesisthatgeothermalpower—unlikethat generatedfromwindandsolar—isavailable24haday

Wind,also a site-specific resource, attracts publicattention for reasonsthat are ripefor geographic analysis Like geother-malenergy,itintrudesonexistinglandscapes.Unlikegeothermal power,however,windturbinesriseintothesky75mormore,and theirspinningunavoidablyattractsbothalotofpublicattention andheatedopposition.Geographershavecontributedstronglyto ourunderstandingoftheenvironmentalcosts,placement,landuse considerations,economicdevelopment,andpublicacceptanceof windpower[49–61]

Solarenergyisathirdrenewableenergyresourcesparticularly suitedtogeographicstudy.Whileitisnotsite-specific,itis dif-fuse.Becausecentralizedinstallationsrequireagreatdealofland, thesitingofsuchinstallationsis beginning toencounter oppo-sitionoverlanduseissues,evenindeserts.Theproblemisthat

incurrentdeployments,utilitycompaniesfavorlargecentralized installations.Settingasidethefactthatdistributedgenerationisan inherentlymoresuitableapplicationoftheresource,solarenergy requiresaboutthesameamountoflandascoalwhentheentire fuelcycleisaccounted,somethingthatgeographersrecognized30 yearsago[62]

Wateris oneof the commonconsiderationsin powerplant siting,andhasthereforelongbeenofinteresttogeographers.More recently,however,waterhasbegunplayingadifferentrole.The so-calledwater/energynexushasbecomeparticularlyimportant considerationin many decisions,especially inthearid areasof theworldwherethetrade-offbetweenthepublicneedforwater

isbumpingupagainstthepublicneedforenergy Manyofthe problemsthathavesurfacedaregeographical innature, includ-ing‘virtual’transfersofembodiedwater,theinfluenceofneedson

3 Kolya Abramsky has edited a recent book on energy and society entitled Spark-ing a Worldwide Energy Revolution: Social Struggles in the Transition to a Post-Petrol World.Oakland, CA: AR Press It, like others, are useful in firming up the rela-tionships between energy and society, but they tend to underplay the role of geography.(defined here to include the lay of the land, geographical interactions and connection, and its scientific study).

M.J Pasqualetti, M.A Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133 127

thesitingoffossilplants,theimpactofdry-coolingtechniqueson

thepriceofelectricity,andtheadvantageofsolarandwindwhere

waterisscarce[63–65]

6 Socialgeographyandpolicyperspectivestoenergy

research

Socialgeographyandpolicyanalysisofferanabundanceof

per-spectivestoenergyresearch.Overthepastseveraldecades,the

conceptsandframeworksofsocialgeographyandpolicyanalysis

havematured;atthesametime,theenergyproblemsdemanding

attentionhaveevolved.Thefollowinghighlightsofgeographical

perspectivestoenergyresearchillustratethepowerofthesetwo

approachesappliedbothindividuallyandincombination,

exploi-tingthestrengthsofeach

7 Energysecurity

The traditional conception of energy security addresses the

relative availability andreliability of energy fuels andservices;

it therefore strongly reflects the variability of energy resource

endowment,whichisatraditionalstrengthofgeographicanalysis

Overthepastdecade,thenotionofsecureenergyhasbroadenedin

scope,reflectingthecomplexsystemoffactorsthatinfluenceit.A

reviewoftheacademicliteraturerevealsthatenergysecurityhas

beentiedtofourkeydimensions:“availability”(reflectingphysical

accesstoenergyresources);“affordability”(afunctionofincome

andenergyprices);“efficiency”(areflectionoftheenergywasted

inprovidingenergyservices);and“sustainability”(referringtothe

impactofenergy productionanduseontheenvironment)[66]

Regionsoftheworldare challengedbydifferentaspectsof the

energysecuritydilemma.Whilenocountriesareenergy

indepen-dent,JapanandmanyEUnationsarefacingtheprospectofbeing

entirelyreliantonimported petroleumandnaturalgasin

com-binationwith energy prices that willchallenge theireconomic

competitivenessinworldmarkets.Othercountriesarechallenged

byair,land,andwaterpollutionfromenergyproduction.Inrecent

years,Shanghai,Beijing,andothercitiesinChinahaveexperienced

levelsofairpollutioncausedbyfossilfuelcombustionthatis

short-eninglifeexpectancyandpromptingtheoutmigrationofmanyof

thewealthiestandmostmobilecitizens.Coalaccountsfor70%of

theenergyconsumptioninChina,onaverage,andmoreduringits

winterheatingseason.Vehiclesaleshaveseendoubledigitgrowth

eachyearoverthepastdecade,followedbysignificantincreasesin

petroleumconsumption.Whilenewambientairqualitystandards

werepromulgatedin2012,theyaresignificantlylessdemanding

thanintheU.S.andmostE.U.nations

Theliteratureonenergysecurityhasfocusedonnational

con-ditions, but other scales of analysis have been highlighted by

geographers,fromtheindividualandsocialsettingtothe

trans-national and global scale The large scales have documented

concernsaboutglobalenergyresourcesufficiencyforaworld

pop-ulationthatcoulddoubleoverthenextcentury,andimplicationsof

fossilfuelconsumptionforglobalclimatechange.Totacklethese

globalproblems,MichaelBradshawcallsforareconfigurationof

thediscipline ofgeography, “unitingdevelopmentgeographers,

urbangeographers,economicgeographers,politicalgeographers

andculturalgeographerstodevelopanagendaforstudyingthe

geographies ofenergy security,climatechangeandlow carbon

transition”[67]

At a more micro scale, energy securityis a highly

context-dependentconditionthatisinfluencedbythesocialenvironment

in which individuals are immersed Research has affirmed the

importanceofgender,education,andageinshapingperceptions

of security–socio-demographiccharacteristicsthatalsohavea strongimpactonvulnerability[68,69].Females,individualswith higherlevelsofeducation,andliberalsaremorelikelytoengage

inenvironmentallyresponsiblebehavior[70].Withrespectto gen-der,conservativewhitemalesintheU.S.haveaparticularlystrong propensitytoendorsedenialistviewsonclimatechange[71],and U.S.menaremoreconcernedaboutenergysupplyaspectsof secu-rityandarelessconcernedabouttheenvironmentalandclimate consequences ofenergyuse, relativetoU.S.women [72].These differenceswould appeartobecorrelated withthegreater cer-taintyamongU.S.womenthathumanactivitiesarecausingglobal warming[73].Still,theimpactofsuchsocio-economicdifferences mustbecontextualizedbyotherfactorsincludingpublicpolicies, whichshapeclimateandsecurityperceptions.Levelof develop-ment,relianceonoilandstrongenergyefficiencypoliciesallaffect theindividual’ssenseofenergysecurity

Clearly,climateandenergyattitudesandpoliciesare compli-catedbythefactthattheimpactsofenergysecurityandofclimate changearenotuniversallyshared.Thegenderbiasinthe energy-povertynexusiswelldocumentedbytheAsianDevelopmentBank, theUNDevelopmentProgram,andothers[1].Forexample,inparts

ofAfrica,AsiaandSouthAmericawherebiomassisthedominant sourceoffuel,womenoftenspendhourseachdaycollectingwood, andthenareexposedtocarbonmonoxidepoisoningwhenthey preparemealsfortheirfamily.Thegreatervulnerabilityof devel-oping nations tosealevel riseand extremeclimateeventshas beenathemeoftheclimateadaptationliterature,where geogra-pherTomWilbanksofOakRidgeNationalLaboratory,hasbeenan internationalstrategist,leadingseveralkeyreportsbytheNational AcademiesandIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC) dealingwithadaptation[74]

8 Geographicaltools Geographicinformationsystem(GIS)modeling,network anal-ysis,spatialoptimizationandmulti-regionalinput/outputanalysis arecorespecialtiesofgeography.Eachhasbeenusedtoaddress multipleenergyproblemssuchasoptimizingthelocationofenergy facilities,designing optimalgaspipelinenetworks,and estimat-ingtheimpactsofenergyinvestmentsoneconomicdevelopment, employmentandenvironmentalquality.Forexample,Newelland Vos[75]andHorneretal.[76]useGIS-sciencebasedapproaches

toimprovetheinventoryingofcarbonemissionsand estimates

ofcarbonfootprints.SouthworthandSonenberg[77]usenetwork analysistoestimatetheenergyconsumptionandresulting green-housegasemissionsassociatedwithpassengerandtruckfreight movementswithinthe100largestU.S.metropolitanareas.Spatial regressionsfoundthatthelargestenergy-basedcarbonfootprints werelocatedinurbanareaswithlowerpopulationconcentration, loweremploymentdensity,largetruckshareofvehiclemiles trav-eled,highermetropolitanareawealth,andless-developedpublic transitsystems.While vehicleemissionshave beenanalyzed in depth, theinclusionoffreight transportintroducedcontentious issuesaboutthe“responsibility”ofmetropolitanareasfor emis-sions fromtruckspassingthrough.Reflectingsuchtensions,the IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)distinguishes between“territorial”versus“consumption”basedGHG invento-ries.SignatoriestotheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventionon ClimateChangemustprovideterritorial-basedinventoriesonan annualbasis.TheseinventoriesmustaccountforGHGemissions and removalsthattakeplacewithintheterritoryover whicha countryhasjurisdiction.In contrast,consumption-based inven-toriesareallocateemissionstotheconsumersin eachcountry Theyaretrade-adjustedemissionsthattakeintoaccounttheGHG

128 M.J Pasqualetti, M.A Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133

Fig 4 The environmental Kuznets curve.

emissions associated with imports and exports, and they are

typicallyderivedbymulti-regionalinput/outputanalysis[78]

Con-clusionsbasedonthesetwoalternativeinventoriescanbequite

distinct;forinstance,someindustrializedcountriesnolongerhave

slowedtheiremissionsovertimewhencalculatedona

consump-tionbasis

The environmental consequences of public policies such as

publictransitinvestmentsandrenewableportfoliostandardsand

subsidiesarebeginningtoberevealedbytheresearchof

geog-raphers and policy analysts [79,80] Indeed, geographers have

contributedsignificantly totheassessmentof thefullspectrum

of energyresources.Because oftheland intensityofbioenergy

production,itscompetitionwithfoodproduction,theimpactof

monocultureenergycropsonecosystems,andthevaluableroleof

forestcarbonsequestration,bioenergyhasbeenthefocusof

con-siderablegeographicalanalysis.Indeed,7ofthe24articlesinthe

specialissueoftheAnnalsoftheAssociationofAmerican

Geogra-phershadbioenergyasitsprincipalsubject[81].Clearlythetoolsof

geographicalanalysisarewellsuitedtoaddressingthechallenges

ofenergyandsociety

9 Toorichtocareortoorichtolivewithpollution?

SimonKuznets,1971NobelPrizeinEconomicshypothesized

that asa countrydevelops, marketforces drivea natural cycle

of economic inequality,at first increasing inequality, and then

decreasingitafteracertainaverageincomeisattained.This

find-inghasbeencarriedovertotheenvironmentalliterature,where

increasingincomeshavebeenlinkedtoaninitialincreaseandthen

declineinpollution–theenvironmentalKuznetscurve.Thecritical

questionisifcontinuedeconomicgrowthwillbringevergreater

harmtotheearth’senvironment,orifincomeandwealthwill

even-tuallybereinvestedintheearth’snaturalcapital?Theanswerto

thisquestioniscriticalforthedesignofappropriatedevelopment

strategiesfordevelopingcountries.Forsomeindicators,economic

growthbringsaninitialphaseofdeteriorationfollowedbya

sub-sequentphaseofimprovement.Thisturningpointsisshownin

Fig.4.One globalstudyof a range of localenvironmental

pol-lutants(includingurbanairpollutionandcontaminationinriver

basins)suggeststhatpollutionworsensuptoapercapitaincome

ofapproximately$16,000($2010),whichisportrayedasa“middle

income”turningpoint[82].Whilecountriestendtoincreasingly

importpollution-intensivegoodsastheybecomemoreaffluent,as

isshownin“consumption-based”GHGinventories,thisappearsto

betoosmallatrendtobethecauseofKuznetscurve

AnumberofstudieshavereviewedtheenvironmentalKuznets

curve as it appliesto greenhousegas emissions.Aldy [83],for

instance,providesevidencethatCO2 fromenergy consumption exhibitsapeakandplateauformwhenappliedtodatafortheU.S states.However,theinflectionpointsofthecurvevaryby loca-tion,suggestingthatalocation-specificanalysisisneeded.When appliedtourbanareas intheU.S.,Cox and Brownarenotable

tofindsupportforaninvertedU-shapedenvironmentalKuznets curve[84].Thisisconsistentwiththefailureofotherstodetect

aninvertedrelationshipbetweenincomeandpollution[85].Itis stillunclearifaffluentsocietiesarebecomingtoorichtocareabout pollutionoriftheywillbecometoorichtoacceptfurther environ-mentaldegradation.Furthergeographicresearchisneededonthis importantquestion

10 Spatialdiffusionofenergyinnovations Thedynamicsofscienceandtechnologypolicies–operating individuallyorbundledtogether–havebenefitedfromtheories

oftechnologyadoptionandinnovationdiffusion.Sincetheclassic workbyEverettRogers[86]onthediffusionofinnovation,itis welldocumentedthatinnovators(thefirst2.5%ofadopters)are notstronglyinfluencedbytheneedfor“imitation”,while subse-quentadoptersaremotivatedmorebysocialnormsandimitation, especially relying on “opinion leaders” who have successfully implemented the innovation Word-of-mouth is a particularly importantsource of information earlyin the diffusionprocess, withbroadermediagaininginfluenceastheinnovationprocess matures.TheseinfluencesweresubsequentlycodifiedintheBass model,usingcoefficientsofimitationandinnovation[87].Swedish GeographerTorstenHagerstrand,followedbyOhioState geogra-pherLarryBrownsubsequentlyplacedtheconceptofinnovation diffusionintoa spatial context,developing thetime-geography dimensionofsocialandeconomicdiffusiontheory[88,89].They highlightedtheroleplayedbythe“frictionofdistance”onthe pro-cessof“imitation”and“contagion,”andarticulatedtheinfluence

ofmarketandinfrastructuredevelopmentsonadoptiondecisions Subsequentgeographershaveappliedthesetheoretical underpin-ningstothediffusionofenergyinnovations[90,91].Thegeography

ofpolicydiffusionhassimilarlyevolvedwithanappreciationfor theimpactofgeographyontheadoptionofstateandlocalpolicy innovations[92]

Thedesignofenergyinformationandmarketingprogramshave oftenreflectedconceptsderivedfromtheworkofthese geogra-phersandsocialscientists,usingnuanceddynamicapproachesthat reflectthematurityofthetechnologyandthereadinessof mar-ketstoadoptthem.ThetimingofR&Dassistanceandsubsidies

toconsumershasreceivedagreatdealofattentioninpublic pol-icydebates.Itisoftentiedtotheoriesofinstitutionalfinanceand technologylearning,drawingonconceptsofthevalleyofdeath, corporatewelfare,andthealternativeoutcomeofstimulatingvs crowdingoutprivatesectorR&D

11 Technologylearning

Ithaslongbeenknownthattheunitcostofaproduct gener-allydeclinesasa functionofincreasingcumulative production, butthepaceof declinedepends onmany variables.The theory

oftechnologylearningwasfirstreportedbyGeorgeWrightwho foundthatthenumberoflaborhoursrequiredtoproduceasingle unitofairplanedeclinedasthecumulativeproductionofairplanes increased[93].Arrowsubsequentlyrelatedthelearningexperience

toproductmanufacturingbyintroducingtheconceptof “learning-by-doing”[94].Sincethen,themostcommonformofalearning curvehasbeenapowerfunction

M.J Pasqualetti, M.A Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133 129

Fig 5 Cascading model of diffusion.

Source:Adapted from Herron and Williams [102]

Thelearningrateisdefinedastheproportionofunitcost

reduc-tion each time the cumulative production or capacity doubles,

basedontheassumptionofapowerfunctionrelationship.Since

thelate 1990s, learning curves have been usedto forecast the

performanceofenergytechnologies.Ontheenergysupply

tech-nologyside,scholarshavestudiedthecostreductionpotentialsfor

bothadvancedfossilfueltechnologiesandlowcarbon

technolo-gies.Astudyofthecombinedcyclegasturbineconcludedthatthis

highefficiencyequipmenthastappedoutmostofitscostdecline

potential[95].A studyofcarbon capturesand storage

technol-ogyconcludedthattheoveralllearningrateofthisequipmentis

approximatelyequallydividedbetweenthelearning-by-doingand

learningbyknowledgethroughR&D[96].Manystudieshave

exam-inedmultipleenergysupplytechnologiesinacomparativefashion

andreportawiderangeoflearningrates[97].Evenforthesame

technology,studiesfoundthatthere issomelevelof

uncertain-tiesassociatedwiththelearningrate,thevalueofwhichvariesby

regionandtimeperiod[21],bythetechnologicalstateof

subcom-ponents[22],andbytechniquesusedtoestimatethelearningrate

[98–100]

Asatoolforinformingenergypolicy,learningcurveshavebeen

appliedtostudythedesignofR&Dprogramsandsubsidiesto

stim-ulatethedeployment of low-carbontechnologies Studieshave

foundthateffectiveandefficientR&Dsupportandfinancial

sub-sidieswouldneedtobedesignedinaccordancewiththestateof

thetechnology, whichistosaythatthelevelandlengthofany

subsidyhavetobecalibratedaccordingtothelearningpotentialit

demonstratesanditsmarketpenetrationandmaturity

Astudythatlookedattheoptimalsubsidizationstrategiesfor

thespatialdiffusionofthreeclimatefriendlytechnologies(solar

photovoltaics,wind,andLi-ionbatteries)suggestedthatsubsidies

aremoreeffectivewhentheyareappliedinadiscontinuous

fash-ionaccordingtothedevelopmentstageofparticulartechnologies

[101].Usingsolidoxidefuelcells(SOFCs)asanexample,the

will-ingnesstopayapremiumforenergyinnovationsinsub-markets

canbeconstructed(Fig.5).Basedonregionalclimatedifferences

andthe“sparkspread”betweennaturalgasandelectricityprices,

regionscanbeorderedaccordingtotheirlikelymarket

penetra-tionatdifferentSOFCpricepoints.Thesetypesofstudiesprovide

astrongbasisforforecastinginnovationdiffusiontrends[102]

Whilealargenumberofenergysupplytechnologieshavebeen

studiedusingthelearningcurveapproach,littleattentionhasbeen

giventothediffusionofhigh-efficiencyend-useenergytechnology

12 Externalities,spillovers,leakages,andfreeriders Acrossthecountryandtheglobe,policymakerscontinuously debatetheinvolvementofpublicentitiesinprivateaffairs.When shouldmarketsberegulatedorincentivized?Whenisa partic-ularbundleofgoodsandservicesbestprovidedbygovernment

or a public-private partnership rather than the market alone? Whenshouldgovernmentagenciesregulateorincentivize mar-kets?Manybelievethatpublicinterventionisjustifiedonlywhen markets are flawed [103] Followingthis prescription,the U.K developeda“RegulatoryStateParadigm”wheregovernment pro-videsagoverningframeworkthattacklesmarketflawsandmoves economic activityin adefinedgeneraldirection,butallowsthe markettoselectthespecificmeanstoreachtheend[104] Marketfailuresincludeexternalities,spillovers,leakages,and freeriders[105],allofwhichhavespatialdimensionsandsohave beenfertiletopicsforgeographicinquiry.Forinstance,local exter-nalities include coal ashthat is impounded in unlined,leaking landfillsandmethaneleakagesfrompipelineswithrisksto sur-rounding communities Higher upthe scale, air pollution from powerplantsimpactdown-windcommunities,andgreenhousegas emissionshaveglobalconsequences.Typicallytheseexternalities aremonetizedandincorporatedintocost-benefitanalysisusing theresultsofstudiesthatmeasurehumanandecologicaldamage

orestimatesofbenefitsusingwillingnesstopayapproachessuch

ascontingentvaluation.ButasW.NeilAdgernotes,thefurtherthe impactsarefromthetypesofgoodsandservicestradedinmarkets, themoredifficulttheassessmentprocess,aswhenestimatingthe costofspeciesextinctionorthelossofavisualamenity[106].The valuationofenergyexternalitiescanvarywidelyoverspace,asa resultofpopulationdensitiesandecologicalloading;itistherefore ripeforfurthergeographicalanalysis

Leakage fromareas that have beenregulatedare illustrated

bystatesparticipatingintheRegionalGreenhouseGasInitiative (RGGI)intheNortheasternU.S.,whichhavecapsontheirregional

CO2 emissions from electricity generation In response to this regionalinitiative,adjacentstateshaveincreasedtheiroutputto sellintothehigher-priced RGGIelectricitymarkets[107] Simi-larly,furthersouth,aNewJerseybasedcompany,LSPower,has proposedbuildinga1200MWcoalplantinEarlyCounty,Georgia,

toexportelectricitytoFloridabecausetheplantlikelywouldnot havebeenapprovedineitheritshomestateorFlorida.Bylocating

inGeorgia,thenewplantwouldnotfaceasstringent environmen-talregulations,eventhoughitwouldincreasetheamountofCO2 releasedbyelectricitygenerationinGeorgiaby13percent[108] Governmentandutilityprogramsofferingsubsidiestopromote energy-efficientproductsareparticularlyplaguedbytheproblem

of free riders,since consumers whowould havepurchased the productevenintheabsenceofthesubsidywillstillreceiveit.The existenceoffreeridersreducestheestimationofenergysavings thatmightotherwisebeattributedtoanenergyefficiencypolicy

orprogram,sometimesbyasmuchas50%[109,110].Inatimeof fiscalconstraintsonpublicspending,geographersandothersocial scientistsskillsetcouldbeproductivelycapitalizedbyhelpingto develophighlytargetedanddynamicdesignsforfinancingpolicies andregulation

13 Pollutionhavensandtheracetothebottom Giventhemobilityofindustryandcommerce,stateandlocal governmentsoftendeclinetoadopthighenvironmentalstandards forfearthatanyenvironmentalgainswouldbemorethanoffsetby themovementofcapitaltootherareaswithlowerstandards–that

is,the“racetothebottom”.Communityofficialstypicallywantto

130 M.J Pasqualetti, M.A Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133

lureindustriestorelocateorconstructnewfacilitieswithintheir

jurisdiction.Ifeachlocalityactssimilarly,lowerstandardsof

envi-ronmentalqualitywillproliferate,compared withthepreferred

higherstandardsfromabindingmechanismthatpreventstheloss

ofindustryordevelopment[111].The“racetothebottom”assumes

thatstatescompetetobetheleastrestrictiveinordertoattract

business,andtherevenueitbrings[112]

Policiesthatenforcestringentcodesruntheriskofencouraging

economicactivitytosimplyshifttolocalesandcountrieswithless

restrictivepolicies,whichcreates“pollutionhavens”[113].Such

havensoccurwhenlocalofficialshavebeencapturedbyregulatory

interests,ormaybeunwillingtobringenforcementactionsagainst

theirownlocalgovernmentsorcompanies.TheworkofJeffOsleeb

onneighborhoodair pollutionin anenvironmentaljustice

con-textisexemplaryofthecontributionofgeographerstothisstrand

of research[114] Takingthis lineofresearchone stepfurther,

geographershavelinkedlocalairtoxicemissionstosocio-spatial

disparitiesinrespiratoryhealth[115]

Inrecentyears,anumberofstategovernmentshaveemerged

ascleanenergypolicyleadersintheU.S.,suggestingthata“race

tothetop” maybeemerging.These leadersacrossthecountry

areadoptingpolicyinstrumentsaimedatcarbonmitigationand

renewableenergydeployment,suchasrenewableportfolio

stan-dards(RPS).TheRPSobligatesutilitiestomeetanincreasingshare

oftheirpowergenerationwithrenewableresources.Usingstates

asalaboratoryofdemocracy,geographersandpolicyanalystsare

beginningtoidentifythepreconditionsforsuchleadership–an

importanttopicforresearchworldwide[80]

14 Policyimplementationatdifferentgeographicscales

Thescaleofpolicyimplementationcanbejustasimportantas

thechoiceofpolicyinstrument.Thedivisionandauthorityfor

envi-ronmentalprotectionandeconomicdevelopmentbetweenlocal,

state,andnationalgovernmentshashistoricallylackedacohesive

rationale;asaresult,theintegrationof policiesacrossmultiple

scalesofgovernancehashadvariablesuccess.Theprincipleof

“sub-sidiarity”hasdominatedU.S.environmentalpolicy,presupposing

thatwheneverpossible,problemsshouldbeaddressedbylocaland

stateauthorities.Thisprinciplemirrorsthefederaliststructureof

theU.S.Government.Inaddition,itwouldappeartobe

applica-bletomanyenvironmentalproblems,whichtendtobelocalor

regionalinorigin.However,manyenvironmentalproblemshave

broadergeographicdimensions

Tointroduce refinementtothesimplesubsidiarity principle,

the“matchingprinciple” suggeststhatthelevelofjurisdictional

authorityshouldalignwiththegeographicscaleofthe

environ-mentalexternalitybeingaddressed.Thisprinciplewouldsuggest

thatthegeographicmatchfortacklingclimatechangeis

interna-tionalpolicyaction,sinceatonofCO2hasvirtuallythesameeffect

onclimatechangeifitisemittedinNew YorkorNewDelhi or

Newfoundland

Yet whilethe effects of climatechangeare certainly global,

theirunderlyingcause,atthesmallestscale, isindividual.Asa

result,the“subsidiarityprinciple” and the“matchingprinciple”

bothsufferfromover-simplification.Thebottomlineisthatpolicy

interventionatalllevelsmustbebetteralignedwiththegoalsof

cli-matesustainability.AsthesuccessortotheKyotoProtocolisbeing

debated,theissueofjurisdictionalscaleisprofoundlyimportant

Thedilemmaisthateachscaleofactionhasuniquebenefitsnot

generallyavailabletotheother.Localactioncanprovide

opportuni-tiesforexperimentationindesigningpolicy.Regulationsdesigned

bylocalagenciescanimprovebothsocialwelfareand

adminis-trativeefficiencysincetheyaretypicallytailoredtolocalneeds

andpreferences.IntheirresearchinterviewsinKansas,North Car-olina,Ohio, and Pennsylvania, geographersKatesand Wilbanks foundawidespreadpreferenceforstateandlocalregulatory over-sightratherthanfederalgovernanceorinternationaljurisdiction

[116].Peoplesharedabeliefthatstateandlocalregulatorswere moretrustworthy,capableofunderstandinglocalproblemsand resources,andapproachable.Theirfindingshighlightthatbringing climatepolicydecisionsclosertolocalcitizensimproves account-abilityandenhancesparticipationregardingthosedecisions.The argumentisbasedinpartoncivilrepublicanism,ortheideathat participationin localgovernmentisdesirableforinstillingcivic virtueinAmericancitizenry.Decentralizeddecision-makingallows foracloserfitbetweenpoliciesandpreferences,givingindividuals theoptiontosortthemselvesamongjurisdictionsbasedonwhich offersthemostappealingmixofpublicgoodsandpolicies[117]

On theother hand, nationaland globalaction ensures con-sistency, so that states and localities are not at an economic disadvantagebythelackofsimilarpolicieselsewhere.Theyalso benefitfromeconomiesofscaleintechnologydelivery,data collec-tion,R&D,etc.,andcanminimizetransactioncosts.Standardization canengenderamoreefficientregulatoryregimethana multiplic-ityofstateandlocalstandards,whichtendtoheightenbarriersto interstatetrade.Uniformityhelpsprovidemanufacturesand indus-trywithconsistentandpredictablestatutes.Forexample,overtime theU.S.hasmovedfromminimumenergyperformancestandards

atthestateleveltofederalstandardsthatprovidegreater unifor-mityandpredictability.Thedominanttechnologiesalreadybenefit frommatureandwellunderstoodregulatorysystems;incontrast, innovationscanbestalledbythelackoffullydeveloped regula-toryregimesincludingtestprocedures,codesandstandards,and enforcementsystems.Smartgridtechnologiesillustrateshowthe paceofdiffusioncanbeslowedasa newgenerationof regula-tionsoverdatasecurityandprivacy,renewableenergycredits,and interconnectionstandardsaredeveloped[118]

Nationalandglobalactionminimizesfreeriders,theracetothe bottom,greenhousegasemissionsleakage,andspillovereffects.At thesametime,itmayconstrainanyracetothetop.Geographers havealreadycontributedimmenselytothedebateoverscalesof energypolicyintervention,butmuchmoreworkisneededtobetter understandandcalibratetheirspatialconsequences

15 Polycentrismasanapproachto“ScaleUp”climate policy

The magnitude of the climate changechallenge demands a scalingupofefforts tomitigategreenhousegasemissions.The existence of multiple governing authorities with overlapping jurisdictionsoffersthepossibilityofcomplementaryback-up insti-tutions(athigherandlowerlevels)thatcanhelpoffsetsomeof theimperfectionsofsinglelevelsofgovernment.Thispolycentrist approachoffersthepossibilityofmoresubstantialoutcomesthan eitherahighlycentralizedorfullydecentralizedgovernance sys-tem[119,120].Themultiplicityoflevelsofgovernanceallowsthe sustainableenergy andclimatechangechallengestobetackled throughchangesattheenergysystemlevel,thefirmlevel,andin thepatternsofconsumptionandbehaviorthatcharacterizesocial systemsandindividuals[104]

Polycentricapproachestopolicydesignappeartohavemany virtues.Complementaryback-upinstitutions(athigherandlower levels)canhelpoffsetsomeoftheimperfectionsatanyonelevel Polycentrismcapturesthe“flexibility”benefitsoflocal/stateaction

aswellasthe“uniformity”and“equity”benefitsassociatedwith federal/globalaction It acceptsthat multiplejurisdictions with overlappingdutiescanoffercitizensmorechoiceinsettingmodes

M.J Pasqualetti, M.A Brown / Energy Research & Social Science 1 (2014) 122–133 131

of regulation.Yet it still requires that localactors subscribe to

acommonsetofgoalsandtobroaderenforcement,minimizing

“transactioncosts”andthe“dilemmasofcollectiveaction.”When

multipleactorsatavarietyofscalesmustcompeteinoverlapping

areas,theycanoftenpromoteinnovationaswellascooperation

andcitizeninvolvement

Ontheotherhand,polycentrismalsofacesseveralchallenges

It requires thecoexistence of local,national, and international

lawsandprograms,assessingsimilartopics.Divergentrulesand

programscanleadtoredundancyofregulation,inefficiency,and

confusionaspeopletrytofigureoutwhichlawsapplytothem

Itmaytakemoretimeforissuestoberesolvedbecause

disgrun-tledpartiescanalwaysappealtotheotherlevelsofgovernment

Bycreatingoverlappingjurisdiction,regulatorsandpolicymakers

canblamedeficienciesonotherlevelsofgovernment.Thiscangive

themmoreabilitytocreatesmokescreens,toshirktheir

responsi-bilities,andtohopethatdisgruntledcitizenswillnotdiscernthe

propertargetfortheirire

Overall,polycentrismcouldcreateimportantrolesfor

multi-plescalesof action andmultiplestakeholders It wouldreduce

theriskofcreatinganintellectualcommonsproblemby

empow-eringsocial, political, and intellectualleadersfrom a varietyof

placestocontributetocleanandsecureenergysystems[66]

Poly-centricgovernanceoftheenergyinfrastructureecosystemwould

appear to be particularly fruitful topic for future research As

statedby AndreasGoldthauin anotherarticlein this inaugural

issue,“energyinfrastructuresystemscomprisemultiplegoverning

authoritiesandactorsatdifferingscales.Polycentrismtherefore

offersapromisinglenstorethinkthegovernanceofenergy

infra-structurewithaviewtofacilitating alowcarbonfuture”[121]

Spatialdimensionsofpolicyanalysisoffergeographersafulfilling

subjectforaddressingtheneedtomagnifytheimpactofpolicy

initiativesonmitigatingglobalclimatechange

16 Energyresourceendowmentandenergydisparities

Theroleofenergyininternationalcompetitivenesshasbecome

ahottopicwiththeemergenceofpronounceddisparitiesinenergy

prices.Whileoilisaninternationallytradedcommoditywithfairly

uniformwholesalepricesworldwide,naturalgasandelectricity

pricesarediverging.ComparedwiththeU.S.,naturalgasprices

arethreetimeshigherinEuropeandfivetimeshigherinJapan

ElectricitypricesaretwiceasexpensiveinEuropeandJapanas

intheU.S.Thesedisparitiesareparticularlyimportantto

energy-intensiveindustries,wherefuelsupplyandpowergenerationcan

be20–25%oftotalcosts,asintheironandsteel,pulpandpaper,

chemicals,andoilrefiningindustries.Asaresultoftheseregional

energypricedisparities,IEAforecaststhattheU.S.willexperience

anincreaseinitsshareofglobalexportsofenergy-intensivegoods,

whiletheE.U.andJapanwillbothseeastrongdecline intheir

exportshares,acombinedlossofaboutone-thirdoftheircurrent

share[122]

Energypovertyisalsoaloomingissue[123,124].Thenumber

ofpeoplethatarenotconnectedtoanelectricgridanddonothave

solarsystemstogenerateelectricityremainsunacceptablyhighat

1.3billion,around20%oftheworld’spopulation.Despiteawealth

ofresources,energyusepercapitainAfricaislessthanone-third

oftheglobalaveragein2035.Inaddition,almosthalfofthe1.3

billionpeopleintheworldwithoutaccesstoelectricityand

one-quarterofthe2.6billionpeoplerelyingonthetraditionaluseof

biomassforcookingliveinAfrica.Howarewegoingtocontinue

toprovidetheenergyservicesofindustrializedandnewly

emerg-ingeconomiesandpullmorethanabillionpeopleoutofpoverty

withoutoverheatingtheplanet?Theseissues,amongmanyothers, areripetopicsforfurthergeographicanalysis

17 Conclusions

Asgeographerscontinuetoexplorethechallengesbeingcreated whereenergyandsocietymeet,theywillhelpuncoverthepathto greaterclarity,fairness,andequilibrium.Wehave,inthepastfew pages,outlinedsomeofthecontributionsgeographershavemade

sofartothesetopics.Theagendaforfutureresearchislargeand important

Theconceptofenergysecurityasaplaceandcontext-specific goalplaysintothestrengthsofgeographicanalysis.Withtoolssuch

asGIS-basedmodeling,networkanalysis,spatialoptimizationand multi-regionalinput/outputanalysis,geographerscanapplytheir disciplinarystrengthstoexplainspatialvariationsinenergy secu-rity.Energyaffordability,consumptionefficiency,environmental stewardshipand issues ofenergy equity needtobecome more visibledimensionsoftheenergysecurityconcept,whichhas tradi-tionallyfocusedmorenarrowlyonenergyresourceendowment and energy infrastructures.Thisbroaderrange oftopics iswell suitedtogeographicalanalysis

Energy externalities, spillovers,leakages, and free riders are inherentlygeographic challengesintimatelytied toenergy pro-duction anduse Their relationshiptothecreation of pollution havensandtheracetothebottomrevealshowsocietycan suf-ferwhenthesechallengesarenoteffectivelyaddressed.Describing andexplainingspatialvariationsinthelinkbetweenaffluenceand pollutionwouldalsobeaproductivetopicforfuturework,since sustainabledevelopmentappearstodependuponthe manifesta-tionoftheenvironmentalKuznetseffect

Facilitating the spatial diffusion of energy innovations and the process of technology learning are also key to solving energy/societyproblems.Itiswelldocumentedthatnew technolo-gieswillbeneededtolowerthecarbonintensityandcostofenergy systems.Successfulsolutionswillbeonesthatadapteasilyinto cur-rentsocio-economicsystems;geographerscanassistinevaluating this typeoftechnologyreadiness,andindeveloping geographic deploymentstrategies.Inthiscontext,policyimplementationat differentgeographicscalesisa ripesubject forfurtheranalysis, andafocusonpolycentrismasanapproachto“scaleup”climate policywouldseemparticularlyprudent

Inthefinalanalysis,therecanbenoconsiderationofenergy andsocietywithoutafullappreciationandconsiderationof geog-raphy.Geographyprovidesthetiethatbinds,placesitincontext, highlightsscale,andidentifieslocationinreferencetoallother fac-torsofsupply,demand,transportation,consumption,andimpact Themodernenergyworldistoocomplex,toointerdependent,and toovulnerableforustoignorehowitallfitstogether.Aswehave triedtomakeclear,geographyandgeographershavebeenplaying

animportantpartinthisprocess,andtheywillcontributeeven moreinthefuture

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