human resources for science and technology the european region 1996 docx

University Dagies inthe Natal Selences and Ensinering 9 Participation Rates in Natural Science and Enginecring Degrees u Foreign Students in European Universities Inenational Mobility Re

Human Resources for

Science & Technology:

The

European

Region

Surveys of Science Resources Series Special Report

National Science Foundation

NSF 96-216

Human Resources for

Science & Technology:

Foreword

“The adoquacy of furure man resources for sience and

cenginoerng isan important issue forthe United States,

Jn 1993 the Division of Seience Resources Stes (SRS)

Published an initial report on Human Resources for

Science and Tecnology: The Asian Region This curient

repo is designed wo furter the understanding of gel

Science and technology resources providing a reliable

dase an analysis forthe Earopeun region which es

high concentration ofthe weld’ scientific resources

“This cepor ws prepared co provide information for US

decisionmakers in their assessments of trends in

flobuization, paricularly oa human resources Mary

‘ational ad itersatonal organizations aeiterested

this opi For example, the Oxgaisaton fox Feononte

Co-operation and Development, the Comission of the

European Commnities, nd the International Council

Scientific Unions hve bees active in discussing Mese

‘opis,

“Tis eport complements and supplements the National Science Board's Science and Engineering Indicators volumes and several ther reports prepared hy the Division of Science Resources Studies

Jeanne E Grif, Ditector Division of Science Resources Stuies Directorate for Soci, Behavioral and Beonomnie Sciences

Noverner, 1996

NoTE

US, R&D data presente inthis report are based on statsties

published in NSF/SRS

‘National Patterns of R&D Resources: 1994

For updated U.S data, see

National Patterns of R&D Resources: 1996

Acknowledgments

This rsport was prepared by Jean M, Johnson, Senior

Scienoe Resources Anais, Science and Engineering

Indicators IND) Program, Division of Selnce Resoures

Stulies (SR), Nasional Seience Foundation,

The database develope! to prepare this report ids on

dats prvided hy the Divison a Sue of the United

Nain Edocatonsh, Seni, and Cultural nganistion

(UNESCO) andthe Cenc for Edeational Resear and

Ingovaton CERI} ofthe Organisation for Economic Co

‘operon a Development (OECD) Through a ans

‘sire set io more dan 1SD counties, UNESCO gathers

‘worldwide data om bigher education esearch, ad eter

imensions of development, which it hat generousy

Jwovided to NSE The repor 2s the esearch and

‘evelopment dats írum the OECD Mai Science and

Teolnology Indicators

‘Te verily and update the UNESCO and OECD degree

daa, NSF was formate receiving fil eoperaion ram)

individals Ministries of Edicationandin science and

technology indicator groups in each of the European

counties staied in this ep lation ther ober

Contributions, these individuals have provided thước

national primary sources on higher dustin 0 tat

‘could develop 4 rlisle dara base on human resources

for science and echnology Their naies filo ae

‘aires at hse inthe Conaets section oe repo

This voluntary exchange of information is very

encouraging and will asit SRS in completing other

‘epional profiles

Jennifer Sue Bond, Digector of the Seience and Engineering Indicators Program within SRS, sppested the continuation ofthis research on hoan resources within the Division, suggested contacts in each of the Eurapean counties, and provided relevant OBCD snd rational publications William nied f the Division

‘of International Programs, read an carly daft and provided many useful suggestions and addtional tnformtion om insitations of higher edvcaion,

‘The repot also benefited fram the comments provided

by other collegues in the Division of Tnvemasional Programs and several external peer reviewers, including Stephen Hua of the U.S Deparment of Education, Philip W Henly of the National Resear Coan Pailp Althich ofthe University of Bosion, Peter Syverson oF the Council af Grate Schools, Richard A Elis the

“American Association of Engineering Societies Erika Rost of the Federal Ministy for Euueaton, Science, Research sid Technolog’ in Germany Kiron Wille

‘Maus ofthe Norwegian Instat for Suds in Research

an Higher Education, Serge Plasard, Science Counselor Ofte French Embassy, Helen Connie ofthe Universi fof Sussey, Lennart Stenberg of the Swedish National Bord for Insti] and Technical Developmen, and Lan

R Perry of the Commission of the European Commuisies Overall guidance and review were

‘provide by Jenifer She Bond and Kenneth M Bross, Eating ofthe report was performed by Friday Systems Services

University Dagies inthe Natal Selences and Ensinering 9

Participation Rates in Natural Science and Enginecring Degrees u Foreign Students in European Universities

Inenational Mobility

Reseach snd Development Papers

Sources of Reseizch and Development ands

Science und Engineering Personnel

Gross Damestie Proust

Eucpean Cooperation in Reseach and Developme

Framework Programs for Reseach and Technological Developmen

Insiations

Doctoral Retonm in France

Rescatch and Development

United Kingdom,

Tndiinions

Science and Engineering Dapree Tem

Foreign Stans

Research and Development

COier Countries ofthe European Union

1, Firsioniversity degrees in science and engineering, by region: 1992

2, Doctoral depres in science and enginering, by region: 1992

3 Foreign sadentcrollment in higher eatin n selected Enrapean counties

44 Foreign student enmllen in higher eduction i France, German nd the

United Kingdom, by region of engin: various years

B

5 Suppod or vesearh a developmen and seience ani enginecring personnel,

by leet of per capita gross domestic radct i segsted European counties

andthe United Stes: 1991

6, Changes in th prories of European Union framework reseursh and development

prosrams a a pereenaze of ttl program budget,

7 BUREKA projects by tocknagy ares 1992

8 First higher education dcorees in seience and engineering in Goan,

by typeof instiution: 1992

9, Percentage of science and engnezring depres in higher education caned by focign students

in mje industrial counties various years

10, Pecccotag of science and engincering doctoral degrees camed by women in

selected countries by Held: 192

1, Level of research seppont for Grand Poo eras in France: 1993 by program area

12, Poet of fist univeesiy science and engingering depres earned by men a women

in soleted European counties: 1992

Figures

1 Propontion offs university degrees in atu siences and engineering

te Weseen Furopeancoontries nd the United Sates

(Grow in enveliment in higher education in selected European counties ad regions

3, Fist university degrees awarded in mature sclnoes and engineering in Westen European countries an the United States

4 First university degtes inn tur scenees in selected European counties

5 iscuniversity degrees in eagineving ip selected Emopean counties

46, Number 20 (0 2¢-year-ois in Buropean counties and the United States

1975.2000 (pojsnel,

1 Perssntage of 21 yearold gi le tisendy dhạree in nail sieneesamf

nginerin in eleted European counts

Tota esearch and development expenditures in Western Europe andthe

nite Sines

w

9 Now-dcfense research and development expenditures in Westera Bure

andthe United Sats

10 Industry Funded esearch and development in Western Eope athe

nite States

11 Research and development in selected European counties a the

United States: 1992

12, Research and development expeuitures in selected European counties

13, Ssieniss and engineers in esearch and development in seosted Europe

1M Gross domesie product in Westen European countries athe United States

1S Growth inthe gross domestie product in selected European counties

Hồ, Fist higher education degrees in science a engineering in Germany: by Hild

Science an engincering doctoral degrees in Germany, by Fe

1S, Grows in researc and development n Gennany

19, Fasc university ogress in eience and engineering in France

20 Growth in research and development expeaitues in France

21, Ft university degrees im science snd enginerng inthe United Kingdom,

ty dẻ

Doctoral dopres ia she United Kingdon, by fed

(Growth in esearch and development in the United Kinglon

24, Research and development ia Hl by performer

25 Research and development in Spain, by souree of fans

26, Ratio university enrllinea in higher elation to the 20-9 -yearold

opblition ia selected Earopein countries

27 Science and engineering degrees as a percentage of al fist university deprees

in selected counties, by sex 1892

28 Perent of gross domestic product in research and development

in Banopean Union countries: 1982

29, Raie file and engineering degrees (oa fit univers

in selected European coiniet andthe United Sites: 1992 ty degrees

30, Percentage of college age cohort with fst university and natu sceace

nd engincering degrees, by sex: 1992

Appendix tables

1, Panicipation te of 24-year-old st onversity degrees in the ata seences

‘nl engineering, by egiowcounty: 1992 oF most cure year

Proportion of total fis univers degrees obained i science sn engineering

in selected Europesn cousres ai the United Sites: 1975.92

3 Doctoral degrees in science and engineering, hy countytegion: 1992,

4 Enrolment in higher education ia Beropean counties and he United States: 1975.91

Fist univers degroes in science and engineering in selected Earopean

coumtis an the United Stas: 1975.92

6 Population of 20-o-24-yearolds in Earopean cauatres andthe United State:

1975.2010 projected

“7 Parcipaton eae of college age cob in frst university degrees in al fies

in selected European counties and the United States: 1975-92

8 Patcipaton rae ofthe college age cohort in astral sclenees and engineering

in seleted European outs ad the United States: 1975.92

9 Total research and development expenditures in Europcan counties and the United States

1975.93; Non-defease expondiares in European counties

andthe United States: 1981.92

Jo, Research and development expenditases in European counties

tnd he United States, by performer: 1975-92

HL Research and development expenditures in European counties andthe

United States, by source of funds: 1975-92

12, Estimated full-time equivlent sient and engners employe in research

an! development ad otal labor Tore in Western Earopea cous and

the United States: 1975.91

Total population in Furopean counties and the Uaiod Stats

1975-2000 (projected

14 Gross domestic produc in European counties and the United States: 1975.93

15, 5 ptents granted to inventors from selected Exropesn counties: 1980-93,

16, isc niversiy grees seience and engincerng in seleted European counties,

by fil 191593

7 Piss universe degrees in sience and engincerng armed by women

in selected European counties and te United Stats, hy fied 1981-92

resin weience and engineering eae by women

in selected European countries andthe United States: 1981-92,

19, Doctoral doarees in science al enginering in Germany’ and the Unite Kingdom,

hy sex and ids 1975-92

20, Share of seience an engineering depres abtsinsd by males and females in

seleced European cores and he United States: 1992 or most caren year

21, Science and engincering degrees asa percenage of ttl fst university

ogzees by county and sex: 1992 oe most curent year

Rotio of sence and engnocring deers to ol is university deyees, by

region/country 1992 oF most core year

23._ Ratio of enrlinents in higher education othe 20- to 24-year population

in Bamopcan eons an the Unie States: 1975.94

24, Envollnent in higher education in European counsis and the United States,

by typeof insion: (991

Participation rat of eollege se hon in in univerdly degrees la the

tral sciones and engineering by sex ad country: 1992 or most caren year

ng

120 lại

Acronyms

‘CERN taropean Center fr Nuclear Research

EC European Commanity

ERTA European Free Trade Agreement

ESRF Buropen Sychroton Ration Facil

EU European Union

FTE Pothtime equivaent

GDP Gross domestic product

LHC Large Hadron Colder

SAE Natural science and engincsring

NSF

‘ore Pres

ReaD RSE S&E ser UNESCO

National Science Foundstion Organisation for Beononie Co-operation and Development

Purchasing power party dolar Research and developmen Research scientist and engineer Science and engineering Science an! eehnology United Nations Exucatonal, Sele snd Cultural Organization

Overview

During the past decal, several European counties

invesied heavily in tesetrch and development (R&D),

including baking word clas laboratories and other

facilis and greadly expanding higher education is

science and engineering These accomplishments are a

important prt of ad the underpinnings tor a broader

fort to mitain and enhance the economic vitality of

rope tough the European Union (EU) The goal of

the EU iso srengten Furope by enhancing ecmmomic

ard social prosperity, wile preserving cltral vests

(Delors, 1994), The EU (See sidchar for countries

included) is attmpting 10 integete the Science and

enginserng (S&P) research conaunity atl mabe the

eson's hgh concentration of science resources even

more productive by encouraging greater eaperaton aml

collaboration across borders The RAD policy ofthe EU

ist strengthen the S&T bass of Eutopesn indus in

‘order 1 increase campettiveness at the European level

nd the global level A series of Frantework Programs

That fund re competitive esearch in strategic areas, sone

“of which ae congruent with US national scenes policy

fun! research sntetess, hs been the major elt for

schieving this pelicy In adition national programs and

father multinational endeavors independent of the EU are

sxpanding S&E education, strengthening doctoral

program, and enhancing R&D collaboration atoss

Enron

‘Tho counties covered in this report, maialy Westen

Europes, are those from whieh snodern science

anaitcal meted, and inane ad dedctive reasoning

amoe inthe 17th and {Sth centuries, These conceptual

Jngovations and the model of a esearch university were

lransferred to other world regions Europe's S&T

contributions, from cenaries of discoveries and long

trations of university edacition and doctoral research

‘eaning cannot be fully deserted by examining he past

17 years of data, However, data on those countries

presented inthis repo, descrihine sro in academic

degrees, RD and gross domestic product (GDP)

in the Unie States that same year, detoral degrees verde in these Gels in Europe numbered more than 25,000 compared with approximately 17.000 degrees aad inthe United Sates, Westem European counties invested $103.5 billion’ in overall R&D in 1993

‘Sonne withthe $137.3 hilo ithe United States i that year However, eiilian research in Western Europe approaches that of the United States, ny 1992, the not defense RAD expenditures of Western European

‘satis reached $958 billion: that ofthe Unie States reached S108 7, The combined GDP of Westen Europe

‘countries surpassed that ofthe United States in he lite 1980s,

Implications for the United States

‘The current levels and projected growth of financial and human escuices devoted Yo SAT in Europe pose some femergiHsses tht il be imipoeant in SAT policy tiseusions in the United Sates One sch isu fetes

to ieifying oppottusides ram improved integration

‘oF European resources with U.S, sources, bth though

‘rational sctentist wo sient coaperstion, 36 wel a rote substan! collaboration an costsharing Tt

avert cy sation cee epee acon rig ones See Noes 09 Da Ser, for dein wy IPS comers se peter o ol exchange rae,

“The European Union, begun in 1988 with x moles

of six Western European counts (Belgium, Fae,

‘Germany the Netherands, tal) and Lusembour 3

4 polcal and economic groping of coniries tht

‘ae developing» common market and, eventually, a

Common crrenc)* Sime cous he Utd

Kingdom, Denmark, Spin, Porivgal, Greece, an

European counes wet ied othe conclusion of

töeDixenhe 194 Sunt met on he Eaopeas

‘Unions fre, There sno fie ey time for

txcoson int Cental and Easter Eape, Torey,

Poland and Hungary have made ema pias

—

TH Ma ey T9

issue revolves around how the United States could benefit

hoth intellectually and financially from enhanced

‘conperation with Europeans in esearch, edeational

texchanges and in science assistance to developing

‘countries, Another issue, closely related tothe frst, is

how scenic and technological information ows among,

‘counties canbe improved and expanded

Implications for Research

‘The total RAD performed ty the European and Asian

egions (each approximately $100 billion) far exceeds

the amount of RED performed within the United State

AAs the capacity to perform reseatch has expanded

throughout the world, a decreasing fraction of new

‘nowledge is found in US labororis, and an increasing

fraction of new Knosedge originates in eer counties,

European scientists in particular are conducting

sophisticated hasie research, and have increasingly

sophisticated faites, Some European countries are

Approaching 3 pereent of their GDP devoted to R&D

“This suggests that issues concerning research cooperation

for enhancing the advancement of basic knowledge and

‘quickening the pace of scientific discovery, as well as ‘ays for improving information about the sieniic and

technological accomplishments of other world regions,

could grow in importance inthe near future

Current US science policy fosters inerationa cost sharing and promoting acess othe world's best science and technology Europe, with its high concentration of Science resources, well-tained PRDs, large facilities and impressive seience budgets in non-defense R&D, provides the United States a primary region with which {o vigorously pursue this policy, Several curently productive collaborations attest to the areay of

‘opportunites; expanding collaboration, however requires improved science information lows

U.S, scientists aleeady collaborate in “big science” projects adn are international ‘example, the US physicists who work i usergroups at researc programs For large European fects such asthe European Center for Nuclear Research known by its French nial, CERN)

‘vith suppor from U.S, Government agencies conte both their knowledge and experience and finan resources to requisite nsruments Further opportunities fre being explored for cooperative arrangements in wing European state-of-the-art facilities and contibuling to their development, such as CERN's proposed Large Hadron Collider (LHC) and the European Synchrsron Rescarch Facility U.S scientists ate also active in international research efforts, suchas the Human Genome Project and he Global Change and oceapographic science programs,

In adtion, university scientists inthe Unite States and Europe have traditionally cooperated with each other vera dozen Science and Technology Centers in the United States have collaborative research and foemal research agreements with centers of excellence in Eton For example, atthe Center for Research on Parallel

‘Computation, collaboration between the California Institut of Technology andthe Aeradynamsches Insite

in Aachen, Germany is quickening the pace of new and important sults in parallel computing The Cente for Utatast Optical Science tthe University of Michigan strengthens itseseareh though collaboration with several French scientists from national laboratories, the Commissariat L'Energie Atomique, Laboratoire pour Vutitisaion des Lasers Intenses at the Ecole Poiseclnique, andthe Insti d Opigue in O35

5 Far cramp US collaboration io CERN’ pla to il the LHC cal ede he dys ease bythe severe us nits

Beyond these opportunites for big science and large

progeams, however, new issues are likely 10 arse

toneraing the best Ways 10 enhance awafeness and

insemly US svolvement and cooneration With cients

fd engincers in other excellent fies in Exope For

‘xainple, how might iformation flows be improved for

the U.S science community to identify promising

‘nade oe fer enoperatcntbat wowed beet hoeh

Duties? There are tvo kinds of information involved

that directly from research laboratories (new discoveries

‘nd technologies), and thal coming from science

“rssnizations (Ebrapean sconce initiatives and changes

in tunding prioies) This raises the isste of #0 hat

Seyrce practicing scientists hover be involved insconce

“xssnizatons (0 JeN(D teas open to cooperation silk

the Unit States,

Besides idomtitying how aleernative diteotions in

Burapean research may complement ovr ow, and

‘auicken the pace of, new discoveries, the iste of itnproving information about both the European andthe

UGS, sconce sytem is ely 0 gr in importance on

both ides of the Atlante, ‘he historic character ad

structure of adminstering RAD in Europe are diferent,

from, and complementary to hat of the United States

“Many European scientists snd engineers work in stable

national borstores, in which sustained fading no

hihly dependent on competitive grant proposal U.S

‘cionists and engineers work nail trowsh competitive

Beant proposals where a competition of ideas ote less

tokey changesamong esearch oct While US sienists

fm tat a ew resize aca quickly they offen do

‘othe the table “national laboratory tp" environ

‘which may promote Jog-term continuity Bath stews

havetfrem steongths ead contntyandchange

Nov issies impli by these diferent research systems

ae how wo host lize the sengths of both sssors i

ouvert for the more rapid advancement of new

‘owed and for the more inely resolution of problem

rea sich as labo Aalth and environmental concer

Implications for Science and Engineering

Education,

Wht kindof grade stent exchanges are coma in

Eure? There is considerable inerastion heen the

US end European research communis, oem tere

oF student exchanges or post-doctoral taining postions from decades ago For example, many older US scientist stds German in college because coatnuine raduate education in science or engineering often requlzed suis in Europe ASUS escarch universities 0% more prominent in he last ow ads, Aaverican fradvate stuleas porsuod theie advanced deerees at home But the deuth of U.S, doctoral and post-doctoral) SRE students working in European laboratories test

‘imiaish the prospects for het pursing ollaboraive srrangements gs working scientists and engineers

"hroushout their ares

‘The number of Eure graduate staenis saying in the United States fs hocome inctessingly modes in recent years, compared for example, withthe number of sadents from Asi, Seadens from Western and Cental Europea countries combined received 688 doctoral degrees nseience and engineering fom US universities

Jn 1992 The numbers of toreign doctoral zcpients rom uropean countess ver low compared ther reins That sane sear, sadents fom Cina earned aver 1.900 dloctoral degrees in science and engincering at US Borope is, however preparing NSE stwens foe international carcers through European exchange programs such as ERASMUS, its siccseor mugnims, SOCRATES, and the new Framework Program on Training and Motility of Researsers, med 3t post agravdte students These programs are based om the assumption that an enabling phase for cooperative

‘seach or international caters isbest achieved hy ealet Sonic troyeh eitional exchanges Programs sick 4s ERASMUS reflet« cultural change in Europe in Which foreign expeseace is not oalyscea 2 desirable

ht imperative in many cases graduate stodons ate

‘expected pend substantial ine manor UI cour {spat oftheir ain

Assconseandenginering become mre gab in tue, intemational experience wil become mor portant for new gencrations of scientists and engincers The consideration of ‘expanded international exchanges for

US science and engineering easton ries isos oF the feasibility of lange nomberso Amersanstaents id

pseaoes being received in European universities and

esearch laborttoies, as well as whether student

‘exchanges would be impediments or enhancements

ompletion of eunensy extensive program requirements

This'ssue may be heer understood thongh assessment

ofthe costs an henelits from eurent U.S sense and

engineering programs that include a period of study in

Europe and Asia,

The United States is undergoing systemic reform to

lamprove all level of education particulary to strengthen

‘math and science education in secondary schools Prt of

‘hs systemic reform isexamining the poor goalifistions

of secondary math and science teachers The large

rmajony of US high school science and mathematis

teachers do aot ave 4 collge major oF minor in the

seience they are teaching lane pereenlage of Earopesh

first university degree holders in natural seieace and

engineering go into secondary teaching This raises an

Issue repazing how now systemic reforms inthe US,

‘system might best eam rom the Buropesn experience

Implications for Science Assistance

Programs

‘The proportion of fewign stant rom parc eegions

ssl affect the focus of major European countries in

taining scestisis and engineers and in building SRE

Infrastructure in developing counsies Severs! European

counties are building scientific ceatrs of excellence em

[Nomth Africa, Eastem Europ, atin Ameria and Pacific

Rim countries, thereby esalishing scientific tes s well

sas commercial Ges, Based on thei Gaining of foreign

students, t would appear that France is intensifying is

sciemiie cooperation with Mies, anal Gesrany si

asters Europe For example, French seiemids are

assisting the Association frig to estblish instwts of

tmoleular biology in Afica, ‘The frstcenter of excellence

will be for genetic reves in Tis, the site for

‘Genome Research for Developing Cauntes IGROO),

tocomplete the mapof he genome of one ofthe parasites

that causes malaria (Nowak 1994) Past uonds would

indicate thatthe United Kingdom wll sso be expocted

to fanher editions! and commercial interactions with

her former colonies in the Pacific Rim as well

Increasing inerstion withthe EU counties,

Capaciy-bilding in sience and education is 2 curent spproich to intemational assistance, One sue regarding UES imtenational assistance for such capacity building indeveloping counties in Asi, Aiea, and Latin America ishow bes to take nto account the cence and equipment sistance being received from Geran, France td the United Kingdom to eahance complementary ant mex cllectively leverage typieally mast program fds

Research Approach

Ditferences in economic growth among counties are leading o shitsin RD capbiltes among majrregions ofthe world In parieulr the integration ofthe regional fecoomies of Western Eazope andthe Pacific Rim is facing goth ites in hein research programs superoe 10 the growth rate foe US civilian research prosrans (NAS, 1990), Berween 1981 and 1992, civilian RAD in Furope grew at ap annual rte of 4.9 percent [Non-defense R&D in he Unite Ssesin hi stone period srew 42 percent annually Civilian R&D expendiuzes row more than 7 percent annually in some Asian

‘counties in shis same tit pio

his report examines RAD resources of selected European counres,patiulaty ister human resources (A previous volume in this series has examined recent trends aương selected courses of the Asian Region) Data series were aalale for 16 Earopean counties, those ofthe EU unl the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), with some limited data for six Central and astem European counties, Becsuse of dats imitation the trend data presented on human resources, R&D investmens and GDP net are for Westra European counais oni European vend are compared wih ends Jnthe United Sts lust potential similarities as Aiflerences in the area of homun SAE resources, Hower, the human resources section contains SAE degre lao f yer (1992 for some Cental and Easton, European counties in oder to spproach a messire of the overal level of SKE degrees n Europe,

awan, South Kore, and Sinapes do wi publish dese

It should be noted that this tepor uses 4 narrower

Aetintion of social seience degrees than many Nori

and Germanic European counties In this repon social

Sciences include social and behavioral scienoes, bt do

‘ot inelude mstties*

“This zeport has been prepared to provide as consistent a

atabase as possible on human resources for scene in

‘the specified Furopesn countries Jn adi to data on

population, education, and SRT personne, 17-year time Series alo are inched oa GDP and RAD expenditures

(hott i purchasing power parity dollar) These data

Also provide the sis or kes indicators of fut groxth

tnt demand for scientists and engineers concluding

Section ofthe report discusses prospects forthe đun

The on rend inthe grow and integeation oF Europea

science and technolo

‘iw European cousins acide amnesia tele rpotog

Several caveats re none First data are compe froma rumers sation and international souees and are ot Sicily comparable In sliton, degree categories in different counties are not academically equivalent Finally, sone data series do noe cover complete periods therefore, 1 European regional total op all dats is ot possible This is especially tre for doctoral depres in Science and engiscering Although these daa problems are no rival, every alempt has heen made to develop trends that are approximately equivalent atthe boas aggregate level The degree data were verified on a coantay by county basis through rational education Statistics (See References and Contacts) Education statics foreach county tere categorized b broad els

of science and, when possible, re-configured 10 the universally accepted classification seheme, the Tnfematonal Standard Cessation of Eaton

"Tierepr dos not el wih eb qualification nS

‘Eamon univers oe equaleney of depees cre

Regional Summary

"hisreport examines 14 counses ofthe European Union:

Austria Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germans,

Grose, lseland, lly, The Neterlnds, Portus, Spa,

Sweden, and the United Kingdon and two coutses of

che Baropean Free Trade Association (EPTA): Norway

and Soitzerand, Limited deta on higher education ae

‘valle for sx counties of Cental and Eastem Europe!

the Czech and Slovak Republics, Hungary, Poland,

Bulgaria, and Romania These 22 vountsies anndally

produce approximately 300,000 Fist university depress

in nota sciences aa enginering, consideray more

than the United States, ta considerably les than the

Asian region” (Soe text uble L}

snmoospheri, and oceanographic, agriculoral, and

tubes and congue se: Met sec we

Relative to population (Europe has almost ice the population in the college-age group than the United Suites), however, Cental and Western European institutions sre not prdacing more NS&P degres than those inthe Unite States, In 1992, 46 percent of the college-age cohort inthe United Stats reveved an NSE degree, while 4 percent ofthe European college-age population received such degree in tht same year (See ppendix table I.) Many Enropean countries” frst, university degrees, however ae for 6-year programs and therefore may be more comparable with + enmbined bchelors and masters degre in the United States

Furopean and Asian universities ate generally more focused on ntl seience and engnoering (NSA ets than universities ip the United Sates, About 0 percent

of total fist usiversity degres in European Union (EU)

Toa rt uivrny cegrens

Natural soenoes and enginering

Natural sence

Engineoring

Sec sles

Text table 1 Fiet university degrees in solence and engineering, by region: 1982

sasoore | swoosaea | t/88483 Tra0 280087 | 5286351

6104 188.168 158.901 116259 280772 2380016 NOTES: The requroment or fst university degree in SBE Hts are not comparable sero, oF ove whi, ho Counties incusesn those ves ogions parla er European unverses, For expo, Garay sus

[own the unter dgraes (wah an average duran of 7 years and he Facticenechucn dgrees (poche ot

£5 years average duration) a3 fe unverty drags vol In Unled Natons Eoicators, SconfE, and Cuiurnl

“rgmietion [UNESCO] {he US Department of Eousatan to elie the loos higher eaves or beter comparably sos counts, clssieston) Work hes bse> underway for several yeas al UNESCO, EUROST, sna

‘See for example, Manping the Won of Eacatin: The Comparative Database System (CDS), US Deparment ok Eaton ana the Natl Scionca Foundston, Weshingion, DC 1901 A nay UNESCO suey whe dase

‘and implometed iy he nl Wis deca

‘Soe append able 4

‘countries aren ies of tural sciences an engineering,

bout 15 pereent of US bachelor’s degrees are io these

Fields, (See figure | aod appendix tale 2)

In 1992, doctoral degrees awarded in NSE fields by

‘Wester an Central Earopeainstzations totaled more

‘than 25,000, 36 pereent shove the US, level, and more

‘than twice as many us Asia counties (See text table 2

and appendix table 3.) Like the Uaited States, «lage

percentage of European doctoral degrees are earned by

foreign student

How fas this pool af sient ad engineers expanded

‘uring the 1970 and 1980s, and what ae the prospects

forthe 190s? The folowing section ewamizes he growth

i seience an engineering (SF) eduction fom 1975

1 1992 and the signifiesnoe ofthe European region in

human resources for seience region summa o ee

‘lmeasions human resources, researc ad development

RAD) investment, and economic prowh—is followed

hy country-specific details on each dimension, Nearer

prospects for Europe's human resources for scence ad

technology ar provided ina conluding section,

Human Resources

‘The concept ofthe universe as acommunity of scholars

dedicated ta the advancement and teansmission of

Inowledge emerged in Italy, Prance, and Engl in the

late Middle Ages and had spread thoughout the continent

bythe beginning ofthe Modera ra Bologna, the worl’:

‘oldest university was esablishe ning the IIb contuy, followed by Pars ad Oxford the 12th century By the

nd of the 1th century, there were 16 universities in Europe: 7 in what snow Hay 3m France: and ? each

in Portugal, Spin, and England, By the end of the LẦN,

en, which witnessed both Catenbere's invention of moveable type and the beginnings ofthe voyages of discovery and exploration, there was a total of 48 oropean universities, including ane in what is now Germaay: 1 each in Denmark, Poland Sweden, and Switzerland: and I each in what are now Austra and the Crech Republic (OECD, 1992: Academie American Encyclopedia, 1994),

EnrotIment in Higher Education Until recently, university education in Europe was lengthy research oriented and reserved foranelie group

of Scholars who had successfully complet a ngorous

‘ealemichigh school tack, Inthe 1960s, the accelerated

‘eof exonomie development created demand for nore Stile abo and te expansion ofthe idl elass caused

fa great demand for bigher education Governments i Fup eespened to these pressures hy forming the s called nos-university tentiary-leel instutons, such as the Insts Universitaires de Technologie in France in

1966, peiyteehuie in the United Kingdom in 1969, and the Fachhochschlen in Germany in 1971 (Academis Europaca, 1992) The small number of students in secoadary and higher education in these couric began

Fee

Total ederce and engnesing

Natural cence ac engineering

Figure 1 Proportion of fist uni

degrees in natural sciences and engineering

in Western European counties and the

to expand to alleviate the serious shorage of waned

‘workers Similar institutions arose throughout other

‘Wesien Furopean countics during this perio, thos

broadening the student base in higher education In he

pust 15 years, university education in science and

engineering has expanded create an incessng) highly

Skilled population Enrolmeot i higher destin hos

Experienced rapid growth fom approximately 7 ition

Stadens in 1975 to more than IT milion in 1991, (Soe

Figure 2 and append ble)

"Eayeaton reforms have been promoted to develop and

‘maintain national capabiliies im new high techaology

‘ecrs and o upgrade tchlgies i oer secon for

improved intestional competitiveness

In conssst to newly industaizing counties in Asia,

vet collepe ge polatons se prose (NSF, 19930),

the collcge-age cohort ip Nosh America Japan ad all

industrialized countries in Europe i declining Even in

tis simation, the number of science and engineering

<earees is increasing The felling section wil sess

recent reforms ncation to accormodste th treo

‘emocratization ot higher education throughout Farope

Desi ime series data have been compile for Wester Europe Dats for 1992 were compiled fr some Central and Easier European counties

University Degrees in the Natural Sciences and Engineering

(Overthe 17 yeu period examine, she Westem European ounces coveted by his repo have coliestively more than doubled their annual prodccion of fist university

‘degrees in natural sciences and engineering (See gure 3) The numberof natural science degrees increased From approximately 56,000 in 1875 yo more than 13300,

in 1092 The amber of eagincering depres rose from 55,000 in 1973 to: mote than 116,600 in 1992 This represents about 2 45.percent average sina) rte of inereae in he natal sence aan even higher rate

of increase for engineering (5 percent) Throughout Europe, dosing this same tine period, university degrees

in mom-cience elds grew even fasier than those in science and engineering Forall counties combined the average annual increase in total university degrees was

‘ore thn 6 percent

“Trends in SAE depree production inthe United States aye quite diferent the numberof US fist university ogres avsndedin the natural sciences and neice remained relatively sible from 1975 0 1983," peaked

in 1085-1986, and nas since declined seadiy it cbsolte numbers, (See figure 3 and appenix table)

Germany, France, and the United Kingdom aesount for tore than 60 percent of thefts university degrees asada in natal seiences in Europe, (See gues) At the doctoral level, France and Germany account for ell over half of se approximately 19,000 degrees in atural Sciences in the European region (See appendix tale 3.)

France and Germany are the main producers of fest universiey engineering degrees, accounting for sppmoxinately half of tolal engineering degrees in BU countries, (See figure 5.) The shiep increase in incsringdegrses esd in Germany in 1989 rests

‘EU and FTA cous

> Theses yea came fea pid intent in the suber mm

Figure 2 Growth in enrollment in higher

‘education In selected European countries

See appendix aes

Figure 9 First university degrees awarded in natural selences and engineering in

“Western European countries and the United States

fiom the unification f former West Genrsany wih fonner

as Gayman: The higher-education stom of satellite unites ofthe former Sovist Union were generally facused on enginecring Hels (See appends tle

“The sharp increase in numberof natural science and nginecring degrees the United Kingdom in 1992stems from the inclusion of colleges and polytechnics it university statistics, At the doctoral level, France,

‘Genny the United Kingdom pcoduoel ear thee=

‘quarters of the Ears deytees i engiacering (See appendix table 3)

Demographic Changes

In the 1980s, he college-age ojnldBon bagan đecning inthe highly indusrlized countnes of Wester Eure the United Stas, aid Japan ln Western Europe the

‘ub inthis segment ofthe population decreased by 3 Ilion between 1990 and 1995 and wil eoatinge ly seine until 2008 Germany has hd x dctning 20-10

"3E yeicol pojaldio since INS, Finland, since 1975,

Figure 4 Fist university degrees in natural sciences in selected

Figure 5, First university degrees in

‘engineering in selected European counties

‘A declining pool of eollege-oge students in Europe has fot resulted in declining numbers of NSE degrees, has occured inthe United Stats, Participation rats in

‘university education n general, and in NSAE degrees in particular, have grown i more than offset the declining population Participation rates have increased in sleet European courses (See figure 7 and appendix tables 7 and 8.) In Finland, more than 6 percent ofthe college age cohort obains university degre in natural sciences

‘orengineering, simi othe prtiipation rates of Japan and South Korea, The large increase in participation rates inGermany in the past few years eet the inclusion of Fast German universities, and their greater focus on ceninesring depres The end data on S&F depres for the United Kingdom do not include colleges and Polytechnics until 1992, when thy achieve university

status (See append ile 5) When NSE dares fom

these instiulons ar inluded in the 1992 daa, UK

Ti rates a more than percent (See appendix

tabs Tad 8) Spain shows significant gain in eds of

NSE degrees and is now om a por with many EU

Foreign Students in European Universities

Major centesof learning in Burope have historically been

ternational half the enrollment a the University of

Pars in the 1500s were foreign stdents, France hes

tealionally hosed the largest number and persentage

of foreign students among European countsles (Chariot

find Por, 1992) Today, France, Gennans,” and the

United Kingdom educate a considerable nuriber of

foreign students, representing between S and 7 pescent

of the total encllient in higher education in these

counties in (950-1991 (UNESCO, 1993) From 1985

“Germany, at orn on permanent nent

2s fori sides Accord he een ten cone

2

1p 1991, she percentage of frcign students in higher-

‘scaton eneoimetsin France deceased Although the umber o foreign siden increased durin this perio, the proportion of foreign stents in higher edcstion dropped from 10 perent to 7 percent bocaise ofthe

‘amit inewase in enollmentsby Fenshstenis (See textiable 3)

France, Germans, andthe United Kingdom are cutely receiving & greater percentage of thet foveign studens from EU countries, Prance sil ccivesamajoniy of foveign students from Africa, but also receives a high percentage of students from Gormany, Portus, te United King, and Spain, Germany receives 40 pereeat

‘fis foreign students fom Europe stil mainly from [Eastern Eutope—buta growing noinber ere rom France, Tals, Spain, and the United Kingdom The United Kinaom hs tila is miaer of ferelgn stants font

‘he EU inthe past years, eaching 93,0N0in 1982 More

‘han one-hied af these ate mainly rom Germany, Klan, Fraace, and Grceee (Gov of U-K., 19946) The percentage of UK, foreign students fom the Asian

‘Commonwealth countries has decreased to 41 percent,

Figure 7 Percentage of year-olds with first university degroes in natural sciences

{nd engineering In selected Europeen countries

Text be 4, Fonign stent enrolment in higher cation in Franc, Germany ‘nate Unites Kingdom by region of org various years

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NOTES: Ices aes higher edt Asa eos Me East cote n UNESCO ml

Seaton

SOURCE: Uni Raton Easton, Sirti an Catal inion, Sate aro, UNESCO, Pa

primacy because ofthe large increase in the mbmber of

Students romelsewhere in Europe and posiily becanse

‘ofthe fil foe” poley for tion for non-EU! stents,

{Scetext able 4)

International Mobility

Most of the EU coun ae preparing ther scientists

and engineers Tor international work, supporting

ducational exchanges, working on equivalencies of

-syyses and inerationslizingtheireuriula Asa result,

“ahigh degree of inerational student andteacher mobili

husecconed, Part ofthe reason forthe ineteasng Nosy

‘of stadents among EX countries is the ERASMUS

Program, begun by the Eugopean Community i» 1987 6

Fad stadt snd eacher mobili! More han 300.000, students ave estimated 10 fave benetted from the ERASMUS Progr’ ineruniersity Cooperation wilh

3 1a [2-moath vss, fom TS to 1994 represen

‘apnosimtely7poteent of te undergraduate population

in Eacope Thirty percent at ERASMUS student

‘xchanges are ia SAE fields, Funding is proved for foreign language training accommodations, and

mm Teas Oigaulzglon (NATO) Senos Pog fond 1987 a

{he yeu apprvinaely 50 pecet othe echunges ice

[ERASMUS effort i all fick to promote inter European

vention Course credits can be transfered back to

the home university

‘OF even gester impact on Europ hier ection is

teacher mobility funded urder ERASMUS, Anestimated

15.000 petessos in higher education have conuibated

to the regular teaching progrant a pn niu,

Sr have jointly developed innovative estricula The

Hunan Capital and Mobily Program lansshed in 1992,

has finde 308 young researchers (post-pradite and

post-doctoral level) ro work in Inbortories im another

{ountey The EL! bgt provided around $100 million

for ERASMUS in 1993, but the actual cont of impli

menting stent stl faulty exchange i Ts higher and

Felies on complementary nana fing foe eauney’

fuigoing students, The United Kingdom, Prance, and

Thy Mà lo RỌI portle Nast COREG AE

[ERASMUS nd receive 30 percent of alleehanges (EC

1 1995, the coined RD expen of de Western

European countries studied (EU and EPTA) were

approximately $1035 lon in 1987 constant dollars”

‘Throughout this eport, dalla aroun wil bein 1987

‘constant PPPS.) Weslem Eropean RED experi

tmouned to 2 percent of the counties combined Gross

Domestic Product (GDP), with wide variation ame

conti Gower vested only oneal of | percent oF

GDP in RAD, while Sweden invested mone dan percent

1 1993 Inthesame year the tal US RAD expenditure

‘vas $137, hilion amounting © 27 percent af the

rational GDP (See figure 8 and appendix able 2)

Sf the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and

RAD speng in counties oe EU ad rans of

Figure 6 Total research and development

‘expenditures in Western Europe and the

57 porcent in the United States The tate of gross oF indus’ funding of R&D has also been Somes es Daring the period of [97S 1992, European, nstcialy funded R&D grew at an average anal rate of 4.9 erent: that ofthe Unie! States, at 3.7 perce (See figure 10.)

Figure 9 Non-defense research and

development expenditures in Westorn

‘Europe and the United States

Europe pesforms as much university research asthe

nied States appronimstely $20 lion won in 1992

{See appendix table 10.) Eurepean counties and the

Unie Stare at similar intheir major sources of suppose,

and pesformets of R&D, (See He Ul and appends

lahles 10nd 11.) Eunopean universities perform about

Ie percent of vera) R&D a8 do US, universities, The

smouot of research perormied hy the government is

ater in Europe tha inthe United Stats and reflects

the stonger prevalence of national Iborstores fa these

countries and their imperuance inthe SAE labor ake

‘Science and Engineering Personnel

The combined sum of RAD expenditures of Western

pean counties his lost doubted ding the pernd

ff 1975 ta 1993 (See figure 12 and appends idle 9.)

Te number of scientists and engineers eng

us fll the same growth curve (See Fgue [ane

‘npn 12.) In 1991 research sientiss and ensineors

‘mere approximately 680.000, compared with about

960,400 inthe United States (See text table 5 and

snpendin tables 9,12, Sand 14) Thesigninesaly larger

umber of esearch scientists and engincers (RSES) in the US, labor Toes, s compared with Europe, highlghs fone US sregth hat eodk! be advantages in scence collaboration With Europe—serding young US scents

“and enginees to national laboratories and unigoeesezch Hucliesin Purope to work in innovativezfeas Fuopean rational Iahoratories are Tonded with long-term commitments for work ina particular fet any new

‘pstuniy in that Bld would Me appropiate forthe, Laborators directors ate not dependent on writing ipdnidaal propos foryourto-ear Tuning, bat they lack sufiiet peesonnel io se her seiemifie resources fully Iss related to combining te sciatic strengths

‘ofthe Unite States ad Few ntl advantage ate {discussed in Implications fo the Unite States

The rates of growth of research communities differed mong individal European counties Spainguacupled the narr of RSEs hetween 1975 and 19H) srowing a

tn average annual rate of more than 10 percent, (rom 9,000 in 1975 40 38,000 in 1990 The number of researchers nae United Kingdom grew ata much tower fate 2.5 pore anual daring hese yeas, ba from a large hase of and 0,000 fll me researchers in 1975, Since 1990, only aly andthe Cates Kinedom, mong

EU eouniries have decreased the number of scents saul engineers employed in R&D, (See append able 12)

Gross Domestic Product

“The following section provides some information on the tres in economic growth um 197540 1998 a arent

‘stmes ofthe combined Enropean economy, Conta European cores are woincluded Heese ofthe curent diiclis in obtaining aecvate national aecouns Jat {rom counties in transition tomar evonomies When these date become available, estimates of the total

‘conomie aeiiy ofthe combined European countries

‘ill consider larger than thos presented ere

Ân 1993, the combed GDP of EU and EFTA counts

‘Was approximately $5.2 trillion in constant dollars

‘Shu highec than the GDP ofthe Uaited Sates which

‘yas 5.1 clon (See figure (4) This represen el srowth tate in European GDP of about 23 percent

“anual font 1975 0 1993, (See appends tae 18.)

Figure 10 Industialy funded research and development in Western Europe

‘and the United States

Figure 11 Research and development in selected Europesn countvies

find the United States: 1892

See append tables 10 nd Tí

Figure 12 Research and development expenditures in selected

Figure 13 Scleiis—ls and engineers In reeeareh and đevolopmmontÌn

selected European countries

EU =Eurapoan Union EFTA = European Foe Trade Associaton

NOTE: Rumbors presente ao ulin equtsents FTE)

See anon le 12

] Percapea

(PPPs) European Union

Ewopean Fie Tade Associaton

This average annual rate of growth in Buropean

Economies during the post 18 years, however, combines

the api growth of their economies inte 1980s withthe

Slow growth and high unemployment ofthe ealy 1990

he mumber of patents granted inthe United Stes to

inventors fom the European counties eet tis same

pater, nha high ate of growth nthe 1980s follows

by adecline from 19901 1993.(Seeappendis tale 15.)

Tigre 15 shows the gros in GDP from 1975 to 1993,

{or sclsted counties i constant dllars, Five counties

Text table 5 Suppor for esearch and development and science al engineering personne, by level

of per eapila gross domestic product in selected European counties andthe United States: 1891

‘account for more than 2Š pereal ofthis tial GDP:

‘Germany France, Italy the United Kingdom, and Spain,

European Cooperation in Research and Development

‘Several Europe-wide programs are in place to develop and improve sience an technology IS&T) cooperation Among the counes ofthe segion Not all ofthese are

EU programs

Figure 14 Gross domestic product

In Western European countries

‘and the United States

‘coordinates regional EU research, technology, and evelopment actions snd sets priorities and bodget allocations for these SAT activities Money forthe Framework Program augments national R&D investments, The objective of the BU Framework Program is to strengthen the S&T bases ofthe goi, ontibing to is competitiveness at the international level

Priorities for research changed inthe four EL Framework Programs between 1984 and 1996 The ist Framework Programm (1988) eoncentated on the need to develop sltemtive energy soures and allocated 30 percent of fuinlsto energy R&D As he energy csi subsided, the subsequent Framework Progiams addressed other Europe-level needs For example, since Europe manicures fewer information eho prods

Figure 15 Growth in the gross domestic product in selected

EU= European Union: EFTA = Euepean Foe Tad AsEecation

Framewv Program in {987 on stimulating advances in

infomation technology (ESPRIT) and communications

technology (RACE) As of 1993, these programs Pad

tot ag 0 improvements in Euope’s balance of wade i

information eehoology and communication products ard

‘were reoriented io integrte asi esearch, development

teams, manufacturing exper, and end users

The fourth Framework Program is considerably larger

snd broader than previous research programs, with

funding ata evel of 12 billion Eoropeancarency wits

(ECU (around $15.2 billion) for the period 1994 10

1995," This program includes energy research, hich

represents 18 percent of the total as well a other

7 Promedoverth yar thse fonds represent apponinaly Spoces tal R&D exgendies,

‘important cesearch areas, For example, one ofthe 15 specific energy programs the controlled thermonuclear fusion program of the EU, called the Joint European

“Torus, Which aims to cteate safe, environmentally sound prototype reactors, Asanext stein this fsion research, ‘2quadrpanit agreement was concluded in 1999 beweea

“Euratom, Japan, the Russian Federation, and the United States, to build an Tnternstional Thermonuclear [Experimental Reactos, The goal of this faiity #6 0 demonstrate controlled ignition of plasmas and

‘limately he uation of fusion power for practical purposes Besides these trations aeas, which have received long-term stable funding from member Countries, & new program of research related to Socioeconomic impacts has heen added 0 the fourth Framework Program, This research will include

ECU = European curency unt

“98% Euepsoa Cortmeen Ôn ssle 193%

‘Text able 6 Changes in the priorities of European Union framework research and development

programe as 8 percentage of total program budget,

“otal program budget in ition ECU 3780 S00 B899 18800

“To pogavbudgølir constant ton doers — | A800 —— 7i 792014780

SOURCE: Gonmission othe European Commuris, Eopean Report on Sconce and Toehnoogy Indaiess

a

technological forecasting and research on educational

improvements (EC, 19h; Hellemans, 1995) (Soe text

ables.)

EUREKA

Another European cooperative lfot in RAD (outside

{he EU Program s seated toward industria and appli

R&D Uner the EURFKA prvgran, consortia of rs

‘in parinersips with iverstes and research institutes

initiate a collaborative scheme and prepara peoposl on

any project involving near market RAD in advanced

Technology: EUREKA pogans were established in 98S

to rae the competitiveness of Europe's indies and

tational economics in advanced technologies Twenty

tio European nations (EU counties and others)

Ptcipate in sett cooperation under this program,

shreced at developing products, processes and services

having a world market potential Text table 7 shows the

Aistihution of EUREKA projects ines techaoogy ae

for 1992

‘Txt table 7 EUREKA projects,

‘by technology area: 1992

‘SOURCE: Commisslan of he Evopean

CGonmunes, Evionean Seosrooay deat 184, European Conmison, Report on Soience and

"table finarciel environment ofthe Framework Progr

‘Complements the cretiveinttive and cost-sharing under EUREKA (EC, 1994h),

Other European Cooperation in Research and Development

Signitican: Europe-wide cooperation has ao occured htowgh several ther programs and ia shaved use of facilities for several decades, The following organizations, while tully distinc from EU structures (ake FC) play a significant sole ia European R&D programs COST," established in 1971 ebeourages est Sharing in busi research in imporant area, including {elecommunications, materials, biotechnology and

‘geculture, The European Space Agency, begun in 1975 for Boropean cooperation in space reseatch and {echologyand space apliatons had x 1992 budget of

‘30 billion ECL, equivalent to about $3.6 billion,

“The best koown and snot siniticant shed fit is

‘he Enropean Cone foe Nuclear Research (known by Front iis, CERN) in Geneva Sterns, Almost 3.00 memes oF dhe European research comunity puticipate in high-energy panicle physies, probing constituents of mater trough shared se of a series of Particle aocelratorfollides and associated detectors, CERN also provides access co thousands of visiting scientists ont around the world, neluding US researchers, Appropristly, ise inthis aban research

‘cviranmicn Ghat scientists at CERN crated the Worl Shs ledine dea reberhe wien iiq st etn

Wide Weh, The 1993 hadet of CERN reached 350

rillon, comtihuted by member nations,

(Other shared folie for nuclear physics, sated in

Grenoble, France, include the Eurupsoa Synchrotron

Rodan Facility (ESRF) with a 1983 budget of S58

nillion and 380 European personnel cooperating in

frondensed mater physics, ad (he Tnstiate Max 90

Lt Pal Langevin TL thermal aise ait with

11993 budgst of S40 mihon ad 382 personel (EC

1904), ILL recently overhauled, isthe words premier

sounceofneiron beans and supe research in physics,

hemidry biolaay and materials science among he

Tao tice main funder: Prange, German ant the

‘United Kingdom Approximately 2,000 scientists visit

TLL each yar to cont experiment on the none dan

0 astruents aro the reactor (Clery, 19984 1998),

US seientsts frequently use these research abogalodes

and likewise, European scientists hae aosess to US

facies,

The European Southern Observatory (ESO)

‘headquartered in Gaeching Germany), with a 1993

Funda of $19 sion, ceasing one ofthe wl

laygst optical telescopes in Chile Te ESO consortiam

‘of eontes commit ise reversibly ong term stable

funding The Europes Molecular Bioloay Laborato)

(EMBL), with a 1998 hndge af $39 milion, employs

In adition othe above prosras for cooperative esearch and shared use of flies, sever eter prominent aropen science organizations help suppon European wil science, These include the Euzopean Science Foundation (ESP) in Strasbourg, France, and the European Molecalt Biology Organization EMBO), The ESE anasociation of 54 member research councils and

‘scaemies in 20 canis devoted to sinc research has been veered to as the “brains” of Europe (EC 1094h) That organization advances European stoperdion by proving leadership in hase seience

‘Members mest discuss cooperative esearch ogra that will jategrate the comparative advantage of paricipsting member nations as well ast plan for the Stared mee of facies ESF planed the ESRF The EMBO promotes concerted aeton in molecuse biology researc in Europe through publication of the EMBO journal, dozens of eourses and 350 ong and shor-term Fellowships EMBL, mentioaed above, is a facility of EMBO Their fellowships, workshops, anal exehinges onto inerstona colabortion andmobity a ou Scientists (BC, 1994)

“

Country Profiles

Countries with very large systems of higher education

sn tesearch communies, namely Germany France, apd

the United Kingdon, il be highlighted sparsely The

renitining countries of the European Union (BU), —— Association (EFTA), and Cental

rope il be diseuseu ia soups

Germany

Germany's accelerated groth inthe 1960s created 3

demand Yor more shill workers, The sill somber of

‘talents in secondary and higher education expanded

‘overcome this soFous shortage From 1975 1991, he

‘umber of sents ego i higher eduction grew st

fn annual rate of 34 percent, fom approximately f

lan to L8inilion, University insitulens and fit

intl expanded (om 1975 1 1985) to keep up with

this growths the lack of further expansion of university faculty since 1985 has ested ia overcrowding nd &

lemger tine to degree (Nerad, 199%)

Institutions

Aihough universities wore aot established in Germany

tint more than two centuries after comparable

fnsttutions appeared in England, Fanee, and Kal by

the end of the 15th century there were nine such

Institutions equal to the number of wnivesiies in

France, The fist af these universities was Heidelbers

fn 1386, followed by Leipzig (1409), Freiberg (1437),

Must (1472), Tubingen 477), and Marburg (1527)

Distinguished older universities in the former East

Germany include Greifswald, Rostock ena, and Halle

Wittenberg The University of Halle was the Gist

university in Europe where lectures were give inthe

eeracular (German) ther than in Latin GêMinach

787) and the University of Belin (1809) were, snd

Femaia, notable science centers

‘then von umbol, German universities ofthe pig sea now world sandand by a sill and sucesso amination of teaching and research (Mile, 1994, German eminence in mematics has beer evident since the (7h century when Gottiried Leitz invented the

«lout independent of Isaac Newon ia England

‘Today (1993), German higher education includes 251 institutions, oF which 70 are universities (including 6 private universities! ), and 128 Fachhochschulen OF

‘hese instutes, orate rom tho universities may continue their studies in doctoral programs The University degree in Germany requtes a minimum of 4 sears of sty, with te average length of undergraduate

"ty lsing 43 yens This lengthy rst univers degree feflects both the quality of university education andthe ral overeroding of universities occuring throughout Eorope Universxy education is funded by the fedeta government ad the Lander (sie) and the number of Snstttons and faculty positions has not expanded in proportion to the inetesing numberof sudents (Vou Priedebure, 1991),

One private university, Witew-Meedecke Universi Norse Westen, vas eecemly els pd abled) fiat erp, he pads are sed of enplymnt