PLANTATION FORESTRY IN THAILAND (TEAK, RUBBERWOOD, EUCALYPT) CASE STUDY IN CHIANG RAI PROVINCE ppt

The Thailand’s forest can be classified as: i evergreen forests with three sub-types – tropical rainforests, semi-evergreen forests and hill evergreen forests 43% of the forest area, dom

PLANTATION FORESTRY IN THAILAND (TEAK, RUBBERWOOD, EUCALYPT) CASE STUDY IN CHIANG RAI PROVINCE

Abdulbasit Elmagboul Wathinee Kritsanaphan Suvi Niemi

Priyanto Marko Tynkkynen Maria Ulfah Jinsun Zhu Eveliina Varis

Moderators:

Dr Damrong Pipatwattanakul Syed Ashraful Alam

List of Contents

1 Introduction and background……… 3

2 Land use management ……… 6

3 Species requirements……… 8

3.1 Tectona grandis……… 8

3.2 Hevea brasiliensis……… 9

3.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis……… ……… 9

4 Silvicultural practices……… 10

4.1 Species selection……… 10

4.2 Nursery techniques……… 10

5 Environmental impacts of plantation forestry……… 12

5.1 Soil……….……… 12

5.2 Water……….……… 12

5.3 Biodiversity……….……… 13

5.4 Global Warming and Carbon Sequestration……….………… 13

6 Management of tree plantations……… 15

6.1 Management in general……….……… 15

6.2 Biotechnology and genetic modification……….……… 15

6.3 Pests and diseases……….……… 15

6.4 Fertilizers……….……… 15

6.5 Fire management……….……… 16

6.6 Management practices by species……….……… 16

7 Utilization of the tree species……… 20

7.1 Tecona grandis……….……… 20

7.2 Hevea brasiliensis……….……… 20

7.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis……….……… 21

8 Case Study on Plantation Forestry in Chiang Rai Province……… 22

8.1 Result of Interview: Forest Resource Management Office………….……… 22

8.2 Result of interview: Forest Industry Organization, FIO………….……… 23

8.2.1 Mae Yao-Mae Sai plantation……….……… 23

8.2.2 Management of teak (Tectona grandis) ……….……… 24

8.2.3 Management of Eucalyptus camaldulensis……….………… 24

8.3 Result of interview: Office of Rubber Replanting Aid Fund………….………… 24

9 Discussion……… 26

10 Conclusion……… 27

11 Recommendations……… 28

12 Implications for forest restoration……… 29

13 References……… 31

1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

The Kingdom of Thailand is located in the southeastern part of continental Asia, bordered by Myanmar, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Cambodia and Malaysia It has a land area of 51.3 million hectares and a population of 63 million people In the 1980s and 1990s, Thailand’s economy was one of the fastest growing in the world, but this coincided with the rapid depletion

of its natural resources Estimates of forest cover range from 13.0 million hectares to 14.8 million

hectares (for 2000; FAO 2005)

The Thailand’s forest can be classified as: (i) evergreen forests with three sub-types – tropical rainforests, semi-evergreen forests and hill evergreen forests (43% of the forest area), dominated

by species of the genera Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Shorea, Lagerstroemia, Diospyros, Terminalia, and Artocarpus; (ii) pine forests, mainly of Pinus merkusii (2%); (iii) mangrove and coastal forests (2%), the main mangrove genera being Rhizophora, Avicennia and Bruguiera and the main beach genera Diospyros, Lagerstroemia and Casuarina; (iv) mixed deciduous forest (22%),

the dominant species being Tectona grandis (teak), Xylia kerrii, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Dalbergia spp and Afzelia xylocarpa; and (v) dry dipterocarp forest (31%) (FAO 2005)

In 2000, the area of planted forest in Thailand was estimated altogether 2,81 million hectares

The species planted were: teak – 836,000 hectares; Eucalyptus spp – 443,000 hectares; Acacia mangium and other Acacia spp – 148,000 hectares; other broadleaved species – 541,000 hectares; Pinus merkusii and other Pinus spp – 689,000 hectares; and other conifers – 148,000 (FAO

2001)

In the history of Thailand deforestation has been rapid, particularly in the 70´s and 80´s In the mid 70´s deforestation rate was about 500 000 hectares annually After that deforestation rate started to decline but in the late 80´s 200 000 hectares was still deforested annually Main reason for declining was logging ban on commercial operations in natural forests, declared after a devastating flood in 1988 Other reasons are change in the international agricultural markets, which discouraged the planting of cassava and rising price of forest land which effected mainly

Deforestation led to reduced timber production and protection of remaining forests Situation led

to shortages in domestic timber supply and timber importing Importing timber from neighbouring countries can lead to similar restrictions in these countries In the long run Thailand will be forced to secure wood and timber demand with forest plantations Final aim could be to fulfil the demand by a combination of the sustainable management of natural forests and efficient wood production from forest plantations (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O 1996)

In 1980´s tree planting started to spread on individual owned farmland mainly due the Northeaster pulp and paper industries in Khon Kaen (Niskanen et al 1993) Until 1993 totally

800 000 hectares of land has been planted in Thailand in which approximately 600 000 hectares

at government cost, 146 000 hectares by consessionaires, and 32 000 hectares by Forest Industry Organization, FIO (RDF 1993) In North and Northeast planting has been done by the government, private concession owners, and industries In South and East farmers planting efforts have been the highest mainly due very profitable para rubber plantations (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O 1996)

In the North most important tree species include teak (Tectona grandis) and Pinus spp., in the Northeast teak and Eucalyptus spp, and in the South and East the para rubbertree (Hevea brasilensis) Teak and pine goes for sawn timber and eucalyptus mainly for poles and pulp

industry Para rubbertree can be used for to produce latex, sawn timber and veneer Para rubbertree plantations have been expanding rapidly due subsidies for plantation establishment costs (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O 1996)

Despite long history of tree planting reforestation programmes have not reached the targets To achieve targets greater involvement by private farmers is needed The problem lies on insecurity

of land tenure, insufficient capital and weaknesses in the wood and timber markets (Niskanen, A., Saastamoinen, O 1996)

Given that there have been almost 20 years of policy shift; this paper aims to provide data on plantation forests in Thailand and in Chiang Rai Province with special focus on the issues

affecting the successfulness of both the policy and practice of forest plantations of teak, rubber wood, and eucalypt on the region

2 LAND USE MANAGEMENT

In management process is important to take into account that land selected for planting may been used by local communities to support their livelihoods and be considered as their land To achieve socio-economic sustainability indigenous and local community rights and privileges should be considered and respected in management of these areas Best way is to provide the right to participate in the use, management and conservation of these areas For conflict management mechanisms for the settling of disputed rights should be established and compensation systems if the rights have to be temporary or permanently extinguished (FAO, 2006)

Security of land tenure is essential for sustainable plantation management Ownership mechanisms have been developing into direction of corporate/smallholder contracts or partnerships Development towards secure land tenure for plantation forests requires consultation with other land users, conflict resolution and shared decision-making Also recognition of customary rights can be necessary together with new land-use policies to harmonize land-use legislation that can impact tenure (FAO, 2006)

In Thailand the aim of National Forest Policy is to increase forest cover up to 40 % of the land area Currently the forest area is 32, 66 % of the land area 513 115 km2 (RFD, 2007) The ratio of conservation and commercial forest used to be 15:25, but has now been changed to be 25:15 respectively In 1992, in compliance with the National Forest Policy and the challenge of expansion of human resettlement and cultivation, the government re-categorized all national reserved forest estates into three zones, which are based on satellite images (RFD, 2005)

The Conservation Forest Zone (Zone C) is the area covered by natural forest that are

undisturbed and/or are minimally affected by human activities Areas under Zone C are identified

as ecologically sensitive including habitats of endangered species and watershed areas This zone

is normally declared as protected forest area Nevertheless, some of these areas, especially in highland of Northern Thailand, are occupied by isolated human settlements that carry on their rotate or permanent cultivation activities

The Economic Forest Zone (Zone E) was set aside from arable land suitable for commercial

tree plantations for distribution to landless farmers Before the establishment of economic forest zone the area has been under cultivation or on degraded forest land

The Agricultural Zone (Zone A) was set aside from degraded or deforested areas that were

suitable for agriculture

In 1993, RFD transferred 70,848 km2 of land from Zone A to Agricultural Land Reform Office (ALRO) After the transfer of land management, ALRO became responsible agency of the Zone

A In 2002, small portion of Zone A which is unsuitable for agriculture was legally return to RFD for forest rehabilitation

3 SPECIES REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Tectona grandis

Teak is native in South East Asia T grandis tolerates a wide range of climates, but it grows best

in a warm, moist, tropical climate It prefers a dry season of 3 - 6 months which is typical for monsoon climate The optimal annual rainfall is 1500 - 2000 mm, but it endures rainfall as low as

510 mm/year and as high as 5080 mm/year According to studies of water consumption by Kallarackal and Somen (1992) a 12-year-old teak consumes 83 litres of water per day in leafy season During the dry season the water consumption is negligible because of the deciduous state Under very dry conditions teak is usually stunted and shrubby Under very moist conditions, the tree is large and fluted and usually behaves like a semi-evergreen species; the wood quality is poor in terms of colour, texture and density For the production of high quality wood with optimum growth, moisture conditions (as expressed by annual rainfall) should be between 1,200 and 2,500 mm with a marked dry season of 3-5 months (Kaosa-ard, 1981) The optimal temperature for teak is between 27 – 36 °C degrees; it poorly tolerates cold and frost conditions during the winter period (Kanchanaburangura, 1976 et al.) Teak is a pronounced light-demander requiring full overhead light (Kadambi, 1972)

T grandis grows well on variety of geological formations and soils, but best on deep, porous, fertile, well-drained sandstones with neutral or acid pH (Kadambi, 1972) Teak soil is relatively fertile with high calcium, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen and organic matter contents (Kaosa-ard, 1981 et al.) According to several studies teak requires relatively large amounts of calcium for its growth and development (Kaosa-ard, 1981) Teak may grow from sea level up to 1200 meters, but growth is slower on high elevations and on steep slopes (Kadambi, 1972)

T grandis is a moderately wind-firm tree species as it owns a well-developed root system Fire resistance is remarkable Young teaks recover from fire as the root system survives and finally produces a permanent fire-resistant shoot (Kadambi, 1972) Teak seedlings are sensitive to severe drought Teak is also very sensitive to mutual root competition, therefore weed management is essential (Kadambi, 1972) Teak is also tolerant to termites, but heavy grazing by pigs, rats, deer

and bison may cause damage to teak shoots The most serious animal threat for teak plantation is the elephant (Kadambi, 1972)

3.2 Hevea brasiliensis

The common rubber tree grows natively in Amazon, Brazil H brasiliensis is a tropical tree and grows best at temperatures of 20 - 28 °C and an annual rainfall of 1800 - 2000 mm Prime growing area of rubber tree is 10 degrees in latitudes from the equator, but it is cultivated much further north It is a light-demanding species H brasiliensis requires moist soil, but provided drainage is adequate Severe tree damage may result from flooding It is relatively insensitive to soil type, but higher yields and disease resistance can be expected on highly fertile soils High salinity is a problem for rubertree H brasiliensis grows satisfactorily up to 600 meters above sea level, but it tends to be damaged by high winds On plantations it may grow up to 20 - 30 meters (IRRDB, 2005)

3.3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis

The common name of E camaldulensis is river red gum and it is native in Murray-Darling base, Australia E camaldulensis may grow in various climatic conditions, from warm to hot and from sub-humid to semi-arid and both permanent and seasonal climates The optimal mean annual temperature is 13 - 28 °C degrees and optimal rainfall is 400-2500 mm per year E camaldulensis grows in elevations of 20 - 700 metres E camaldulensis is a light-demanding species, but very fire sensitive Even low intensity fires may cause cambial injury lowering the value of the timber

E camaldulensis prefers deep moist subsoils with clay content Wildly it grows in creek valleys and requires a certain length of flooding duration With a good water supply it may reach a height

of 12 - 15 meters in few years It is not physiologically adapted to either drought or salinity, although these stresses can be tolerated for short periods or at low levels Compared to many other species, E camaldulensis performs high productivity on infertile soil and hot temperatures (CSIRO, 2004)

4 SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES

4.1 Species selection

Selection of the species come in many shapes and guides are for variety of reasons, some to provide shelter, shade, fodder for livestock, fuel wood for households, timber for furniture and construction industry or recreational resources as a valuable service to urban population The essential ecological characteristics of tree species selected are high survival when planted, rapid growth, density and spreading of crowns that shade out weeds, flowering and fruiting, ability to attract wildlife at young stage of development, resilience of fire and the ability to coppice (Silikul, 2000) The essential characteristics of nursery techniques include reliable seed availability, rapid seed germination, ensuring the health of seedlings in containers, high quality of seedlings and good horticultural practices (Silikul, 2000)

Tree improvement strategies involve planning and execution general objectives especially in long term breading, propagation and conservation in the improvement program Improvement strategy requires biological and technological knowledge including genetic variation and gain, flowering biology, mating system, seed production, clonal propagation and planting techniques (Kaosa-ard, 2003) Improvement objectives are divided into short and long-term objectives Short-term objectives are to increase the volume of production per unit per area through improvement of growth rate, to improve stem quality of trees, to improve wood quality and production of genetically improved seed Long-term objectives are to establish long-term breeding population,

to manipulate and maintain the genetic variability of the breeding population through many as generations as possible and to secure the supply of improved seed and/or planting materials of greater cumulative gain for planting programmes (Kaosa-ard, 2003)

4.2 Nursery techniques

Tectona grandis

For teak (Tectona grandis) the most critical problem under nursery conditions is the poor

germination which is only 25 – 35% (Keiding, 1985) Low germination is due to the strong

dormancy behaviors of teak seeds, which causes low plant percentage in the nursery production Germination behavior causes a large variation in both quantity and quality of the seedling (Tewari, 1992) Vegetative propagation of teak can be done by budding, rooted cutting techniques or by tissue culture (Teak Improvement Centre, 2008) Teak seed production generally commences after fifth year of development (Kaosa-ard, 2003) but earlier flowering, already at the age of 1 year, has been recorded (Teak Improvement Centre, 2008) Teak fruit produces usually between 1500 to 2500 of seeds per kilogram

Hevea brasiliensis

In nursery management of rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), seedlings are raised in nurseries for

almost a year before transplanting to the field This technique is more economical and convenient than direct planting Generally, survival rate from seeds to seedlings ranges from 80% to 90% (Dept Of Agriculture, 2003) Different categories for rubber tree saplings are developed to meet the differing requirements on whether the owner wants to concentrate on latex or timber production

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Eucalyptus camalduensis is usually propagated from seed There are about 700,000 viable

seed/kg of seed and 1 kg of eucalyptus seed is sufficient to provide plant for 100 ha of plantation

at spacing of 3 x 2 meters Seedling survival rate is 25% (Doran et al, 1987) E Camalduensis is one of the several eucalypt species suited also to mass vegetative propagation through stem cutting (Eldridge et al, 1993) Under nursery conditions seed germination should be completed after seven days at optimum temperature of 32oC (Ponynton, 1979 and Doran, 1990)

5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF PLANTATION FORESTRY

al, 2003)

In general soil protection is done by reducing soil erosion and increasing the organic matter accumulation The soil will be disturbed during development of plantation by several activities The continuous harvest of litter and wood or accidental fire will reduce the nutrient and carbon stocks in both biomass and soil Thinnings will contribute to a small reduction of transpiration, which turns out to be a net increase in nutrients and carbon to soil, etc (Malmer, 2006)

Looking at the good sides, plantation does prevent the land from desertification and formation of sand dunes Most deliberate efforts to overcome degradation involve tree plantings However, even traditional forms of timber plantations can be risky operations, and if species selection or early stand management practices are inappropriate plantations may fail (Corlett et al., 1999; McNabb et al., 1999)

5.2 Water

Based on the water framework a good water management will decrease the chance of surface runoff, unnecessary leaching, flood and evitable drought to a large extent (Douglas, 1977 / Bruijnzeel, 1990/ Anders Malmer, 2006) Also more nutrients can be taken up by vegetation if

the quality and content of water can be maintained at a adequate level In return, ground stream water will help in seeds dispersal, especially in gentle slope and watershed (Figure 1)

In plantation, a high production of timber material or pulpwood usually requires a large amounts

of water and sometimes the availabilty of water becomes a big problem in certain areas The claim that fast-growing tree species like eucalypts consume relatively more water than the other species has not been proved eloquently Not enough knowledge has been gained on whether plantations can prevent floods or not; however there are some cases indicating that such a function of plantations exists But it could be arbitrary to draw any conclusion before finding enough evidence (Cossalter, 2003)

5.3 Biodiversity

Industrial plantations have been criticized for their impact on diminishing the biological diversity

of the site, especially with monocultures (Spears 1984; Hunter 1990) When a large industrial monoculture plantations are established they bring in high environmental risks as they are often more vulnerable to environmental hazards than mixed stands (Poore et al., 1985)

Being native species, plantations of teak can actually maintain or gain biodiversity, though the effect is modest Teak plantations are more likely to create environmental conditions that are suitable for native fauna than plantations of exotic species Some trials involving monoculture plantations of native species producing high-value timber are now under way in many countries (David & Peter, 2005)

5.4 Global Warming and Carbon Sequestration

Carbon sequestration is a good alternative for tackling global warming The idea is mainly to use plantation to lock up carbon in living trees and then after timber is harvested, the carbon will be transferred into durable constructions and furniture The science is simple enough: trees convert

slower rate than plantations, they do not actively sequester as much carbon per unit area (Cossalter et al., 2003)

6 MANAGEMENT OF TREE PLANTATIONS

6.1 Management in general

Focus of plantation management is either on productive or protective functions or combination of both Successful plantation management includes interpreting market signals, studies on social and cultural aspects and impacts, finding out best practices for involving and interacting with communities, selecting the best practices for growing trees including; infrastructure development, selecting species, rotation times, tending, silvicultural operations, protection and selecting suitable harvesting technologies (FAO, 2006)

6.2 Biotechnology and genetic modification

Using biotechnology and genetic modification are still relatively new practices in plantation forestry and can have both benefits and drawbacks Benefits come from increased productivity, forests health and vitality, better insect resistance and wood quality Drawbacks are increased risks of narrowing genetic diversity and gene transfer to wild relative species (FAO 2006) Gene transfer can be avoided by using exotic species or selection of plantation location

6.3 Pests and diseases

Weed, insect, diseases and other pests control is essential in maintaining plantation forest health and productivity Chemicals are widely used but genetic modification, mechanical and manual tending, silvicultural operations and monitoring can also reduce substantially risks of pest outbreaks (FAO 2006)

6.4 Fertilizers

Usage of fertilizers should be carefully planned and based on soil, foliar and mycoflora analysis

synchronized with periods of the fastest nutrient uptake Economic benefits should always exceed costs In private companies certification systems effects and even discourage the usage of fertilizers in plantation management (FAO 2006)

6.5 Fire management

Fire plays a major threat to plantation forests and it can lead to loss of nutrients and increase the risk of erosion Fire is also often used tool of management in plantations Planned burning can prevent catastrophic fire outbreaks and so protect plantations from fire and also stimulate fire-depended species Fire is also often used to clear the land before planting although it must be carefully used especially on steep slopes to prevent erosion Successful fire management is based

on prediction, prevention together with public awareness, monitoring, rapid response and community-based fire management (FAO, 2006)

6.6 Management practices by species

Tectona grandis

Teak is one of the most valuable timbers in the world This is due to the good characteristics of the wood material Teak is considered as an attractive, light but strong wood material with great resistance against fungi, humidity and insect damages Without remarkable splitting, cracking, warping or materially altering shape of wood material, teak timber is found to be a user-friendly material for processing (CAB, 2000)

Teak stand can be established by natural generation or by artificial regeneration methods, such as; stump planting, bag planting or direct sowing Stump planting is the most popular one of the artificial regeneration methods as it offers many benefits compared to other methods Stumps can

be produced when needed, in transportation stumps maintain their viability over considerable distances, planting is easier and quicker and also the growth of seedlings is more rapid and vigorous than when using other methods (CAB, 2000) Planting spacing of teak should be relatively wide in order to promote rapid development of the saplings; on average spacing should

be 3m x 3m, which is used in Thailand (Tewari, 1992)