Food is power the impact of colonialism and global capitalism on việt nams food map

However, as a result of colonialism, neo-colonialism and imperialism, Việt Nam’s traditional relationship with food consumption and production has been changed and co-opted.. However, Vi

Food is Power:

The impact of Colonialism and Global Capitalism on Việt Nam’s Food Map

Adam Mahoney Northwestern University B.S Journalism and Sociology

World Learning, SIT Study Abroad, Vietnam: Culture and Development Fall 2019

Academic Director: Cô Duong Thanh

ISP Advisor: Mr KC Low, Tượng Sơn Farm of Elephant Mountain Produce Company

Abstract

A millennium of colonization and war in Việt Nam has deeply convoluted culture,

livelihood and survival in its current nation-state Traditionally, for Vietnamese people food has represented the core aspects of life– a connection to history, tradition, identity and survival However, as a result of colonialism, neo-colonialism and imperialism, Việt Nam’s traditional relationship with food consumption and production has been changed and co-opted In the past century, the country has seen a shift from collective uses of land for survival, towards a culture that depends on creating for others As a result of measures which were first enacted under colonial rule, 93.6% of Việt Nam’s current GDP comes from exports of goods and services to places like China, America and European nations— who all, at one point, had a colonial,

stronghold over the region This ever-expanding relationship with exporting agriculture and other raw materials has been masked by the terms globalization and global capitalism, also known as imperialism, just under a new name Globalization drives a process of diet convergence among formerly colonized countries and their colonizers that challenges the predictions about future patterns of food production and consumption

Slowly, concern about the country’s relationship with exportation and its effects on Việt Nam is creating critical considerations from both the government and local people However, Việt Nam’s colonial past has created an economy that is dependent on trade, making it a difficult topic to navigate when prioritizing the survival of Vietnamese people Interviews, surveys and extensive research have revealed that the alteration of Việt Nam’s food map has damaging

effects on Vietnamese culture, physical health, labor safety and environmental protection As Việt Nam continues its developmental journey towards what is considered as ‘modernity,’ both tangible and intangible manifestations of ethics, safety and human rights must be considered to ensure protection of its people and land

Keywords:​ Agriculture, Agronomy, Colonialism, Capitalism, Decolonial Studies, Developmental

Studies, Environmental health & protection, Sociology

Acknowledgements

I would first like to acknowledge the Cham, Khmer, K’ho and Lạch peoples whose land I occupied to conduct this research in Đà Lạt and Hồ Chí Minh City Much thanks to Cô Thanh and Anh Tuan for giving me the support and tools to conduct this research independently I also would like to thank everyone at Tượng Sơn Farm of Elephant Mountain Produce Company Lâm Đồng, especially Mr KC Low, Ms Nguyễn Tiến and Mr Trần Thi for their hospitality and receptiveness towards my research While in Đà Lạt, I had the opportunity to work with Đà Lạt University and Phiên Chợ nông sản hữu cơ Đà Lạt- Đà Lạt Organic Farmers Market, which were both instrumental in my research Thank you to Dr Nguyễn Thị Hậu, Dr Nguyễn and Dr

Nguyễn Tất Thắng of Đà Lạt University and to the organizers of the Đà Lạt Organic Farmer’s market for accepting my invitation for interviews I would be remiss to not thank my host family,

Cô Duyên, Chú Bảo and Bạn Càng for accepting me into their homes and treating me with love and respect For my case study in Hồ Chí Minh City, I would like to thank the staff at Harvest by 5th Element restaurant, especially the manager Cô Vera for granting me space in their restaurant and allowing me to conduct surveys

I would also like to acknowledge my family back home for helping me to be in a position

to do this program and guiding my interests I will forever have pieces of my heart throughout Việt Nam, and I’m immensely grateful to the peoples currently occupying this land for letting me experience it for myself

Terminology 5

The impact of Transnational and Western Colonialism on false narratives within Globalization and

Wastewater Treatment 26

Phiên Chợ nông sản hữu cơ Đà Lạt- Đà Lạt Organic Farmer’s Market 28 Tượng Sơn Farm of Elephant Mountain Produce Company Lâm Đồng 30

a Global Capitalism​: The fourth stage of Capitalism, which now transcends nations, and thus is transnational, or global In its global form, all aspects of the system, including production, accumulation, class relations, and governance, have been theoretically disembedded from the nation and reorganized in a globally

integrated way that increases the freedom and flexibility with which corporations and financial institutions operate The system is dictated by colonial and imperial pasts, highlighting unequal power relations between nations and regions.​2

b Green Capitalism​: A capitalist approach that believes the levers of the market can

be used to fix the broken environment— as natural resources dwindle and become instinct, the market will be able to reverse and correct itself.​3

2 Colonialism​: A practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another.​4​ The practice includes acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.​5

a Western Colonialism​: A practice of colonialism enacted by Western nations between the 15th Century until the mid 20th Century (With the exception of the State of Israel, which is still colonizing Occupied Palestine).​6

3 Commercial Farming​: Farming for a profit, where food is produced by advanced

technological means for sale in the market Often at the expense of food safety,

environmental protection and workers rights.​7

4 Folx​: A gender neutral collective noun used to address a group of people.​8

5 Food Map​: The process of finding out where people can buy and eat food, and what the food needs of local people are It is a type of needs assessment that aims to identify the geographical areas or communities that have the greatest needs in terms of access to food.​9

6 Globalization​: The process described as the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services, technology, and flows of investment, people, and information.​10

7 Imperialism​: A policy of extending one country's power and influence through force over another country, often for un-equitable economic benefits.​11

8 Neo-Colonialism​: The use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence other countries, especially former colonial dependencies.​12

9 Organic Farming​: An agricultural system that uses ecologically based pest controls and biological fertilizers derived largely from animal and plant wastes and nitrogen-fixing cover crops Modern organic farming was developed as a response to the environmental harm caused by the use of chemical pesticides and synthetic fertilizers in commercial farming.​13

10 Subsistence Farming​: Farming which uses traditional technology, low capital investment, and in which the production of food for the individual farmer's family or community is the priority.​14

Figures

1 Product Exports by Vietnam to China 2016

2 Meat consumptionPork meat, Kilograms/capita, 2018

3 U.S Imports from Việt Nam 2016

4 Tượng Sơn Farm Greenhouses

5 Tượng Sơn Farm Crops

6 How important is food to you?

7 Do you believe consuming Vietnamese food is an important part of what it means to be

Vietnamese?

8 Do you know where your food comes from?

9 Do you often think about where your food comes from before you eat it?

10 Do you take pride in Vietnamese food products, including agricultural crops and food dishes?

11 Do you have faith in the quality and safety of food grown in Việt Nam?

12 Do you actively search to eat only organic foods?

13 Which of these crops do you consider important to life in Vietnam?

14 All of the crops listed in question #x are not native to Vietnam and were brought by the French Does that change your answer to question #x?

15 What is your favorite Vietnamese dish or food product?

On a micro, individual level, people grow up eating the food of their ​own​ cultures It becomes a part of who each person is, how they are socialized and shape who they grow up to

be Many folks associate food from their childhood with warm feelings and good memories and

it ties them to their families, holding a special and personal value for them Food from families often becomes the comfort food people seek as adults in times of frustration and stress For people who don’t have easy access to food, food also dictates their daily lives Often their

existence is marked and regarded from meal to meal, whenever they are able to get one Food is sustenance, survival and existence

On a larger scale, food is an important and undeniable aspect of culture Traditional cuisine is passed down from one generation to the next It operates as an expression of cultural identity and a way to preserve cultural identity from oppressors and colonizers Each country or community’s cuisine can reflect its unique history, lifestyle, values, and beliefs Not only is food sustenance, survival and existence, it is also history, tradition and identity

So in the case of Việt Nam, food simply represents life– a connection to history,

tradition, identity and survival However, as a result of colonialism, neo-colonialism and

imperialism, Việt Nam’s traditional relationship with food consumption and production has been changed and co-opted Historically, Việt Nam supported itself through collective and

collaborative uses of land and natural resources to provide food and shelter to its people.​15

However, as a result of measures which were first enacted under colonial rule, 93.6% of Việt Nam’s current GDP comes from exports of goods and services to places like China, America and European nations— who all, at one point, had a colonial, stronghold over the region.​16​ This ever-expanding relationship with exporting agriculture and other raw materials has been masked

by the terms globalization and global capitalism, also known as imperialism, just with a new name Globalization drives a process of diet convergence among developing and developed countries that challenges the predictions about future patterns of food production and

consumption

Objectives

I intend to study the impact of China’s, France’s, Japan’s America’s colonial and

imperial relationship with Việt Nam and its relationship with the country’s food production and consumption in today's world dictated by global capitalism Currently Việt Nam’s food map, which outlines what is grown here, consumed here and exported from here, has deep roots in colonialism In many cases, traditional cuisine has either been erased or altered, highlighting influences from China, France and America This is important to study and document because it represents a specific segment of neo-colonialism, the use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence other countries, especially former dependencies The research will touch on cultural, environmental and economic aspects of Việt Nam

Specifically, my research will attempt to document Việt Nam’s food map– cataloguing what is grown and for who, differentiating between native and colonial crops and between crops for internal consumption and export The research will also attempt to draw the connection between the agriculture industry and what dishes are actually consumed in Việt Nam, like Bánh

mì or Phở Although the changes in Vietnamese culture due to the alteration of their relationship with food may not be obvious in the day-to-day existence of the average Vietnamese person, it is important to document how colonialism affects former colonies long after they’ve been ‘freed’ I hope this study advances the acknowledgment and education surrounding the explicit and

implicit effects of colonial rule in places that are no longer explicitly controlled by colonial governments

Methodologies, Limitations and Ethics

This project utilized two different case studies: Food Production Case Study, Đà Lạt and Food Consumption Case Study, Hồ Chí Minh City Both quantitative and qualitative forms of data were collected to analytically and critically address the guiding research questions A total

of ten interviews were conducted, 9 in Đà Lạt and 1 in Hồ Chí Minh City, as well as 12

questionnaires collected in Hồ Chí Minh City Background and supplemental research was

collected from 27 peer reviewed journals, as well as independent agencies like OECD, Asian Development Bank, andWorld Bank Data was also collected from government agencies: local

People’s committees in Đà Lạt and Hồ Chí Minh City, as well as the US dept of Agriculture In

Đà Lạt, three farmers, three professors from Đà Lạt University and three organizers from a local food market were interviewed through a semi-structured process The food market organizers participated in a focus group discussion In Hồ Chí Minh City, one interview took place with a restaurant manager, as well as ethnographic observations in the restaurant Four out of 12

questionnaires were collected in person, while 8 were administered through Google’s form application; all participants were native Vietnamese folx Five questionnaires were filled out in Vietnamese, the other 7 questionnaires and all 10 interviews were in English Seven out of 10 interviews conducted were scheduled through convenience sampling, as I had been in contact with the interviewees prior to beginning the research Questionnaires were also conducted

through convenience sampling, however snowball sampling also took place as the form spread

The two case studies were driven by primary research, however much of the colonial studies come from secondary research, but were guided by word of mouth from primary research subjects Quantitative data was used to support individual experiences and accounts from the mentioned sources All collected data was used to contextualize how Viet Nam’s relationship with food has changed over time, and subsequently how this has affected the livelihood and culture of Vietnamese folx

As a non-Vietnamese person, there were many ethical concerns and limitations I was exposed to throughout the study Namely, there were large language and cultural barriers which made it difficult to fully connect with interviewees, limiting how much they may have trusted me

to tell their stories There were also power dynamics that must be addressed related to my

standing as an American and America’s controversial relationship with Việt Nam I also found ethical concerns with anonymity, especially as much of my data was collected from an

internationally organized farm, farmers market and restaurants There were also ethical concerns with attempting to outline effects on Viet Nam’s culture, especially considering that I am not Vietnamese and I’m not a part of the culture Lastly, the largest limitation was due to the time constraints of the project which limited my abilities to fully delve into the project, affecting the numbers of interviews, questionnaires and background research conducted

The impact of Transnational and Western Colonialism on false narratives within

Globalization and Development Theory

There have been many attempts to theorize and define the term ‘development.’ In many cases, development is used to assert a certain status that has been placed on a level of superiority,

in order to socialize people, institutions, countries, etc Often, development and developmental aspirations are inserted by groups with dominance and power In the case of Việt Nam, the term

‘development’ is a product of colonialism and westernized supremacy, used to erase and

delegitmize indeginous, traditional and pre-colonial histories Development is theorized to exist

in a natural state, as it explains “the processes of change in societies and how they take place.”​17

In comparison, also in a natural state, there have been folx living in Southeast Asia for at least 70,000 years, according to scientific research.​18

Modernization theory, the current leading development theory, came to fruition after the end of World War II, and as a response to a growing united world communist movement.​19 ​ The theory is based on the ideals that modern societies are more productive, children are better

educated, and the needy receive more welfare…” as a result of “social structural differentiation”

or distinct social and political structures within a nation.​20​ The definitions of development in practice are consequences of ideology that favors certain narratives over others, minimizes any social or political structure that doesn’t follow neo-liberal ideologies and ignores centuries of colonial histories which have resulted in unequal social and economic power balances between countries Development, as it has been theorized and defined, is not an inherent, natural state, but

a by-product of colonialism, exploitation and false notarization of western beliefs to promote physical, environmental, intellectual and cultural violence and control against oppressed and marginalized peoples across the globe.​21

Development, as we currently accept it, rests upon the ideals that there is a singular way

of living, which should be accepted and aspired to across the globe In the case of modernization, this inspired lifestyle is overwhelmingly western, white and capitalist Dossa describes

development as “the logic of Western dominance, located in the 'metaphysics of white

mythology.'”​22 ​ Uncoinicidentally, the ideas of western, white and capitalists, or ‘white

mythology’ fueled colonialism throughout Africa and Asia for centuries Robert Emerson

outlines the falacies of colonialism, which directly relate to the falacies of development: “cultural superiority which justifies colonial rule either on a permanent basis, since the 'natives' are

congenitally incapable of overcoming their backwardness, or for as long a period - seen, perhaps,

as lasting many generations or even centuries - as they are regarded by their colonial masters as being incompetent to manage their own affairs.”​23 ​ The idea that Việt Nam, as it naturally exists,

is not a developed state is another form of cultural superiority used by western nations to dictate and homogenize life in Việt Nam

The Power of Food: Politics, Survival and Control

There is a direct correlation between colonial histories and the meaning of food and survival for indeginous folks across the globe, as well as the global transformation of food

regimes as a product of colonialism Research about this global phenomenon has been conducted extensively across the world, but is limited in Việt Nam

The Food Empowerment Project is a volunteer-based non-profit organization whose mission statement is "to create a more just and sustainable world by recognizing the power of one's food choices."​24​ In the report, “Colonization, Food, and the Practice of Eating” the

organization connects colonial history to the meaning of food and survival for indeginous folks across the globe Although the report does not single out examples of Việt Nam, it creates a global picture surrounding the lasting effects of colonialism on people’s culture and daily

livelihoods The study mentions that most studies about colonization “generally focus on the social, political, and economic changes forced upon Indigenous populations, the matter of

food—the very source of survival—is rarely considered,” pointing towards the significance and necessity of this type of research.​25 ​ The paper details how European colonizers were fully aware, and purposefully, eradicated traditional diets and replaced them with colonial diets as a form of social control “In the minds of Europeans, food not only functioned to maintain the bodily superiority of Europeans, it also played a role in the formation of social identity.”​26 ​ Europeans used food as a way to dictate social identity, but also falsely idolize their own physical beings, as seen with the growth of global white supremacy The research also connects the cultural aspects

of religion with the need for Europeans to change traditional diets and the need for religious imperialism As a product of this imperialism, Europeans often brought new crops and animals to lands In the case of Việt Nam this was an influx of beef, vegetables and grains that were not native to the region, forever changing the diet of Vietnamese people Along with these new crops, colonization also led to the creation of plantation style farms in most colonized regions For Việt Nam, this was coffee, rubber and tea plantations Often these plantations were utilized

as cheap or free labor for colonizers, like the French, to extract resources and crops for

consumption in Europe

Although colonization both tangibly and intangibly altered native food map’s, it is

important to note that food has always been a form of resistance for colonized bodies Native diets have found ways to navigate being forced to integrate Western foods to create their own foods like, in the case of Việt Nam, Bánh mì or Bánh xèo As Alverez says, “food has never merely been about the simple act of pleasurable consumption—food is history, it is culturally transmitted, it is identity Food is power.”​27

The paper “From Colonialism to Green Capitalism: Social Movements and Emergence of Food Regimes” suggests that this alteration of food maps due to colonization have continued in our modern systems of global capitalism and globalization The paper describes that a

corporate-environmental food regime is emerging as part of a larger restructuring of capitalism This is shown globally as the world's diet is becoming increasingly Western and increasingly wasteful in terms of land and water consumption We see this currently in Việt Nam with the increasing number of non-native crops grown purely for Western consumption Land is being colonized by the West for food products that don’t necessarily define or add to the Vietnamese diet Led by food retailers, agrofood corporations are selectively appropriating demands of environmental, food safety, animal welfare, fair trade, and other social movements that arose in the interstices of the second food regime.​28 ​ If this process is continued the paper argues that “the new food regime promises to shift the historical balance between public and private regulation, and to widen the gap between privileged and poor consumers as it deepens commodification and marginalizes existing peasants.” ​29 ​ Historically in Việt Nam this was seen under French rule, the construction of irrigation works, chiefly in the Mekong delta, and the area of land devoted to rice

cultivation quadrupled between 1880 and 1930 During the same period, however, the individual peasant’s rice consumption decreased without the substitution of other foods.​30​ Not only did this change the cultural and physical consumption of food for Vietnamese people, it also mightily shifted the country’s landscape and environment This phenomenon was recently documented in

an OxFam report which stated that the richest man in Việt Nam earns more in a day than the poorest Vietnamese earns in 10 years.​31

Not only is food power in cultural and economic aspects, it also directly dictates

environmental concerns Việt Nam is now among the most vulnerable nations to climate change impacts according to a recent International Panel on Climate Change report that emphasized the environmental concerns of Việt Nam’s growing production industry which utilizes the use of harmful plastics and warns of the costly effects climate change will have on it’s agricultural system.​32 ​ Additionally, by 2030, rising sea levels in the delta would expose 45% of the land to extreme salinization and crop damage, with rice productivity falling by nine percent.​33​ There are also negative implications between Việt Nam’s current energy consumption and dependence on agriculture Agriculture accounts for 80% of the surface-water consumption and with increases

in energy demand to supply urban and industrial centers, conflicts over water management are likely to increase.​34 ​ This development has put Việt Nam “on a path that makes it a member of the global neoliberal community, which ensures that inequity and corruption will continue to persist there,” as the country becomes more ‘modernized’ and ‘developed.’​35

Việt Nam’s Colonization: Food’s History

China’s Domination (111 BCE- 938 CE, 1407-1427)

Background

Modern Việt Nam, as we know it, has been traced to “legendary kingdoms ruled by mythical monarchs,” due to systemic erasure of the region’s history under Chinese colonialism.​36Developmental theories, like modernization, assert that countries should aspire to be like

modernized societies as in America, Hong Kong and many European countries, however they fail to account for instances like erasure of history and traditions which these same powerful societies use against so-called nations that need to become ‘developed' As Chinese rulers

disparaged through land and lives in modern day Việt Nam for roughly one thousand years, they purposefully erased any remnants of ancient history in the region.​37​ This exercise of power and state formation is inherent to the practice of history and domination.​38

Chinese domination in Việt Nam was spearheaded by scholars and government officials who were historically ostracized in mainland China.​39​ The colonial reign controlled many aspects

of life in Việt Nam, some of which are still dominating in the present day, including agriculture, education and infrastructure The initial purpose of Chinese rule was to control the Red River Delta in Northern Việt Nam, a geographical terrain for trading supplies with other powerful countries like India and the Roman Empire This process was abetted by the efforts of Chinese governors to achieve complete sinicization the practice of bringing people who are not of Chinese descent under the influence of Chinese culture through the imposition of Chinese language, culture, customs, and political institutions, often erasing any cultural and intellectual artifacts belonging to ancient Việt Nam along the way 40​ Throughout China’s campaign,

resistance and revolution defined a lot of Vietnamese existence The first major rebellion against Chinese rule broke out in 40 CE, led by the Trung sisters.​41 ​ Rebellions maintained until Việt Nam gained independence in 1427

Việt Nam’s current relationship with China is heavily reliant and influenced by its

colonial relationship Currently, they are engaged in a sovereignty battle over the South China Sea Its reported that, “a new dispute erupts between China and Vietnam about once a year,” but this battle is over an “energy exploration in an area in the sea that both countries call their

own.”​42​ The sea also sees 1⁄3 of all products traded in the world go through its water per year, so there's no end seen in the near future.​43

around wet rice farming Rice cultivation, dependent on weather and complex systems of

irrigation, requires cooperative labor Việt Nam used this collective spirit in food production, but also in protection of their own communities against Chinese rule This was also the first time Việt Nam utilized rice for export and economic gain, as Southern China used Northern Việt Nam

as direct pipeline for food supplies ​4546

Impact on Trade

There has been proven correlations between priorly colonized regions and their

relationship with trade Exploitative numbers of trade accumulation of natural resources has solidified that “development is not neutral; it is often a facade for 'imperialism, exploitation and dependency,” all of which are results of colonialism.​47​ In the case of China, they used Việt Nam historically as a tool to feed their own citizens in mainland China this has persisted today China is the second largest destination, only behind the United States, for Vietnamese exports at

$21.95 Billion (USD) Additionally, Việt Nam depends on China for over $50 Billion worth of products imported into the country Việt Nam is the only country in the top 10 of China’s export destinations that is also not in the top 10 in global population

Product Exports by Vietnam to China 2016 (Figure 1)*

Total: $21.95 Billion (USD)Top 3: Electrics ($6.4 B), Vegetables ($3.99B) and Clothing

($2.59B)

Source: World Integrated Trade Solution of World Bank ​ 48

In the case of French colonialism, “Việt Nam was a case of ‘colonization without

development or modernity.”​49​ The French were “primarily concerned with facilitating the

extraction Việt Nam's agro-mineral resources to exploit ” 50 ​ This exploitation is a result of the free market, neo-liberal system which values consumption over protection Whatever economic progress Việt Nam made under the French after 1900 benefited only the French and the small class of wealthy Vietnamese created by the colonial regime Not to mention, during French colonial reign over 200,000 Vietnamese people died fighting for their homeland’s

independence.​51 ​ Throughout this struggle, thousands were imprisoned in places like Hỏa Lò Prison— where not only were Vietnamese physically and violently suppressed, the French made sure to also suppress any sense of cultural solidarity or power brewing between their Vietnamese subjects With all that being said, and nearly one hundred years of violent physical,

environmental, intellectual and cultural damage against the Vietnamese people, in order for Việt Nam to be accepted as a developed and accepted global state, they are expected once again to bow to colonial powers like France and follow their lead

Influence on food

When French colonists arrived in Việt Nam, they brought several ingredients that did not yet exist in the East, such as asparagus and potatoes The words for these ingredients evoke their origins: asparagus are known as Măng tây, or Western bamboo shoots They are seen as a special occasion sort of vegetable, hinting towards the high status that colonial products are awarded; asparagus soup is a very common first course for weddings.​52 ​ Potatoes are yet another vegetable introduced by the French, which is surprising in and of itself, because until Antoine Parmentier popularized them in the 18th century, a century before colonization, the French believed that

potatoes were unfit for human consumption and used them as food for farm animals, especially pigs.​53

French colonization also led to the introduction of many of the main aspects of food that are globally associated with Việt Nam: Coffee, Bánh mì and Phở The French had started

drinking coffee in the 1600s when it was introduced from the Middle East and brought it with them to Việt Nam 200 years later It was quickly adapted into the local cuisine and culture, largely because the country has an excellent climate for growing coffee — the proof: today, Việt Nam is the world’s second largest coffee exporter.​54​ Bread is not common in East Asia, but when the French colonists arrived in Việt Nam, they came armed with both guns and baguettes The Vietnamese adapted this bread and began using it in their local cuisine, often regarded as a form

of resistance against French imposition while the Vietnamese style of baguette is similar to the French baguette, it is made with rice flour instead of wheat flour, giving it a wholly distinct flavor and texture.​55​ These baguettes are used as the base of one of the most famous Vietnamese dishes worldwide, Bánh mì The sandwiches contain a combination of grilled meat, coriander, pickled vegetables and pâté, highlighting French influences of raw vegetables, pâté and meat.​56Phở is a combination of Vietnamese rice noodles and French meat broths; some even say that the name Phở may be a Vietnamese appropriation of the French pot au feu or stew 57 ​ The presence of beef — tripe, thinly cut raw steak and meatballs — further belies the European influence in this case, as beef is uncommon in other traditional East Asian cuisines

Impact on Trade

Many of the main crops, food products and food practices, introduced into Việt Nam are now dominating the country’s economy, namely the Coffee, Rice and meat industries This has various impacts on life in Việt Nam, including changing the physical use of land, what is eaten

by citizens, relationships with countries across the globe, cultural relationships between ehnic minorities and Kinh folx and agricultural practices

Coffee

For the last decade, Việt Nam has alternated between the top three positions in the global rankings of coffee production and exportation As of last year, Việt Nam was the world’s second

largest exporter of coffee beans and the largest robusta exporter Coffee exports account for nearly 10% of the country’s total shipment of agro-forestry-fisheries.​58

Vietnamese instant coffee is now available in 70 countries and territories worldwide.​59

Its global market share of coffee has jumped from 0.1% to 20% in just 30 years.​60 ​ After the country’s shift towards a more open and free market, coffee production grew by 20%-30% every year in the 1990s The industry now employs about 2.6 million people, with beans grown on half

a million smallholdings of two to three acres each.​61 ​ Vietnamese consumption of their

homegrown coffee is limited, more than 90% of coffee grown is for export Roughly ⅓ of all coffee consumed in the UK is Vietnamese grown

The WWF estimates that 40,000 square miles of forestry has been cut down since 1973, much of it for coffee farms, and experts say much of the land used for coffee cultivation is

steadily being exhausted.​62

Meat Industry

While the French occupied Việt Nam, they established cattle farms, exasperated pork consumption and increased shrimp farming further ingraining meat into the daily diet of the country and shaping the region's current relationship with beef, pork and shrimp

As the world’s 14th most populated country, Việt Nam and its 94 million people are increasing their livestock consumption as they experience higher income and population growth Despite the relatively stable growing trend of livestock production over the past few years, meat output has not managed to keep up with the current consumption demand Currently, the country

is forecasted to consume 4.5 million tons of livestock in 2019.​66​ It is shown that, “a higher

growth rate for beef and poultry is a result of a new cultural belief which is a preference towards western and/or imported products.”​67​ In 2015, the country’s imported meat value was estimated

to have reached US$234.7 million, and by 2017 the number nearly doubled at US$410 million, according to the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.​68 ​ After introducing large scale cattle farms to the region, France maintains a lot of control over the quality of Vietnamese beef

In only a six month period in 2016, French companies had exported 100 tons of frozen beef and

270 tons of beef offals to Việt Nam 69

Shrimp has been a mainstay in Vietnamese diet for centuries, however since exporting the product under French control, problems have arisen As of 2018, Việt Nam is the world’s fourth largest seafood exporter, with one of the fastest-growing fishing fleets.​70​ It sends products such as shrimp to 170 countries, and in 2017 it exported $8.5B worth of seafood, with the top export destinations being the EU,including France, followed by the US.​71 ​ The country aims to increase exports to $10.5bn this year.​72​ According to an investigation by the Environmental Justice Foundation, children as young as 11 are working aboard Vietnamese vessels fishing illegally for seafood that could end up on sale in supermarkets in the EU and US.​73

Although, Pork was a part of the Vietnamese diet before French control, it was also exasperated under the creation of large scale farms by French colonists Now, Việt Nam is set to become the world's top pork consumer Vietnamese currently consume an average of 29.9

kilograms of pork per capita, however by 2023, the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development expects that number to rise as high as 33.9 kilograms per capita, making Việt Nam

the world’s top consumer of pork.​74 ​ While this economic prosperity has allowed Vietnamese to incorporate more meat into their diet, the country’s farmers now face a challenge: finding

enough corn and soybeans to feed Việt Nam’s 28.3 million pigs As a result, both foreign and local firms have invested heavily in the construction of local feed mills to meet the needs of Vietnamese pig farmers Foreign feed producer Cargill is currently constructing its 12th feed mill

in Việt Nam 75 ​ Currently, about 70% of Việt Nam’s pig feed ingredients come from abroad 76 ​ By

2022, Việt Nam’s domestic market for animal feed is expected to reach a value of US$10.55 billion.​77

Meat consumptionPork meat, Kilograms/capita, 2018 (Figure 2)

Source: OECD Agriculture Statistics: OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook (Edition 2019)

Japanese Occupation (1940-1945)

Background

J​apan entered Việt Nam under the guise called a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere,

an economic coalition of Asian nations Together, Japan argued these Asian countries would expel Western imperialists and capitalists then share trade, resources and commodities between themselves With France preoccupied in World War II, Japan saw its opening and entered

Northern Việt Nam in 1940 For most of their occupation, the Japanese left the French colonial government in place, though its authority was greatly diminished, creating a dual imperialist empire

The Japanese presence in Việt Nam also attracted foreign attention, particularly from the United States Working to suppress global Japanese expansion and also wanting to protect its imports of raw rubber, half of which came from Việt Nam, the US helped Northern Việt Nam dispel Japanese occupation by 1945

Influence on food and Impact on trade

When the Japanese occupied Việt Nam they exploited the rich delta by exporting rice to their country, which denied several million Vietnamese of their basic staple.​78 ​ In 1941, the

French puppet government granted Japan ‘most favored nation’ status, meaning the bulk of Vietnamese exports were allocated to Tokyo at low prices While Việt Nam was occupied by Japan, the Allies, especially the United States, often bombed roads, making the transport of rice from the south to the north extremely hard.​79​ Both France and Japan forcibly hoarded food from farmers to feed their troops, while the French administration was broken and unable to supply and distribute the food.​80 ​ The inadequate food supply caused the famine in Việt Nam; starting with 1943, peaking in March–May 1945 and continuing till the end of Pacific war there was unprecedented starvation Two million Vietnamese people were reported to have died of

starvation which was attributed to the Japanese rule and was further compounded by

independence, they started using the region for their own gain On August 4, 1953 during a speech to US Congress, then president Dwight Eisenhower admitted, that the United States relationship with Việt Nam, within the Indochina region, was strategic in support of building the United States’ riches and power, not a “gratuitous offer” of support The US chose to impose itself in the region, not for the greater good or to contribute to the world’s ‘modernization,’ but,

as Eisenhower said, because the US needed to dominate that region “for its security, its strength and its possibility to obtain what it needs among the riches in Indochina and Southeast Asia.”​82This utilization of control continued as the United States supported the anticommunist

government led by Ngô Đình Diệm in the South US intervention expanded into neighboring Cambodia and Laos, playing a major role in as many as 2 million civilians deaths and some 1.1 million deaths of North Vietnamese and Việt Cộng fighters 83 ​ This included bombing and

spraying deadly chemicals on farmland and villages More than 10 years of U.S chemical

warfare in Việt Nam exposed an estimated 2.1 to 4.8 million Vietnamese people to Agent

Orange.​84 ​ U.S aircrafts also targeted 4.5 million acres across 30 different provinces in the area below the 17th parallel and in the Mekong Delta, destroying inland hardwood forests and coastal mangrove swamps.​85​ This has had deep effects on public health, the agriculture industry and current relationships with the US

Influence on food and Impact on trade

After the war, the US severed diplomatic ties with Việt Nam and imposed a full trade embargo, leaving the country to handle the destruction to its farmland and city hubs The

dangerous quantity of residual dioxin in the earth, as a result of US actions, still thwart the

normal growth of crops and trees, while continuing to poison the food chain.​86​ The Mekong is one of the most fertile regions in the world, however after its poisoning during the war, its

fertility dropped significantly Between reunification and Đổi Mới, the country faced increased food shortages and bad crop outputs, attributed to poor soil quality and drought.​87​ This caused a failure of the reunified governments first 5 year plan which focused on self-subsistence The government rationed, or restricted, food during the period, in hopes for a solution, which would end up being the lift of the US trade embargo Increased relationship with the US allowed the country the opportunity to import food, while also developing its own export culture as soil safety improved.​88​ Now, the US influences Vietnamese food with the expansion of western restaurants and dictating many food practices, particularly organic farming certification

Trade relations also exhibit American influence and control over what is grown and consumed in the country:

U.S Exports to Việt Nam 89