PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN EAST ASIA MAINLAND CHINA, JAPAN, SOUTH KOREA, AND TAIWAN doc

Berman is university chair professor at the National Chengchi University Taipei, Taiwan Doctoral Program in Asia-Pacific Studies, and the Department of Public Administration.. d on-Yun

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

IN EAST ASIA MAINLAND CHINA, JAPAN, SOUTH KOREA, AND TAIWAN

A Comprehensive Publication Program

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

EVAN M BERMAN

Distinguished University Professor

J William Fulbright Distinguished Scholar National Chengchi University Taipei, Taiwan Founding Editor

JACK RABIN

1 Public Administration as a Developing Discipline,

Robert T Golembiewski

2 Comparative National Policies on Health Care, Milton I Roemer, M.D.

3 Exclusionary Injustice: The Problem of Illegally Obtained Evidence,

Steven R Schlesinger

5 Organization Development in Public Administration, edited by

Robert T Golembiewski and William B Eddy

7 Approaches to Planned Change, Robert T Golembiewski

8 Program Evaluation at HEW, edited by James G Abert

9 The States and the Metropolis, Patricia S Florestano

and Vincent L Marando

11 Changing Bureaucracies: Understanding the Organization before Selecting the Approach, William A Medina

12 Handbook on Public Budgeting and Financial Management, edited by

Jack Rabin and Thomas D Lynch

15 Handbook on Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations,

edited by Jack Rabin, Thomas Vocino, W Bartley Hildreth,

and Gerald J Miller

19 Handbook of Organization Management, edited by William B Eddy

22 Politics and Administration: Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration, edited by Jack Rabin and James S Bowman

23 Making and Managing Policy: Formulation, Analysis, Evaluation,

edited by G Ronald Gilbert

25 Decision Making in the Public Sector, edited by Lloyd G Nigro

26 Managing Administration, edited by Jack Rabin, Samuel Humes,

and Brian S Morgan

27 Public Personnel Update, edited by Michael Cohen

and Robert T Golembiewski

28 State and Local Government Administration, edited by Jack Rabin

and Don Dodd

29 Public Administration: A Bibliographic Guide to the Literature,

Howard E McCurdy

31 Handbook of Information Resource Management, edited by Jack Rabin

and Edward M Jackowski

33 The Politics of Terrorism: Third Edition, edited by Michael Stohl

34 Handbook on Human Services Administration, edited by Jack Rabin

and Marcia B Steinhauer

36 Ethics for Bureaucrats: An Essay on Law and Values, Second Edition,

John A Rohr

37 The Guide to the Foundations of Public Administration, Daniel W Martin

39 Terrorism and Emergency Management: Policy and Administration,

William L Waugh, Jr.

40 Organizational Behavior and Public Management: Second Edition,

Michael L Vasu, Debra W Stewart, and G David Garson

43 Government Financial Management Theory, Gerald J Miller

46 Handbook of Public Budgeting, edited by Jack Rabin

49 Handbook of Court Administration and Management, edited by

Steven W Hays and Cole Blease Graham, Jr.

50 Handbook of Comparative Public Budgeting and Financial Management,

edited by Thomas D Lynch and Lawrence L Martin

53 Encyclopedia of Policy Studies: Second Edition, edited by

Stuart S Nagel

54 Handbook of Regulation and Administrative Law, edited by

David H Rosenbloom and Richard D Schwartz

55 Handbook of Bureaucracy, edited by Ali Farazmand

56 Handbook of Public Sector Labor Relations, edited by Jack Rabin,

Thomas Vocino, W Bartley Hildreth, and Gerald J Miller

57 Practical Public Management, Robert T Golembiewski

58 Handbook of Public Personnel Administration, edited by Jack Rabin,

Thomas Vocino, W Bartley Hildreth, and Gerald J Miller

60 Handbook of Debt Management, edited by Gerald J Miller

62 Handbook of Local Government Administration, edited by

John J Gargan

63 Handbook of Administrative Communication, edited by

James L Garnett and Alexander Kouzmin

64 Public Budgeting and Finance: Fourth Edition, edited by

Robert T Golembiewski and Jack Rabin

67 Handbook of Public Finance, edited by Fred Thompson

and Mark T Green

68 Organizational Behavior and Public Management: Third Edition,

Michael L Vasu, Debra W Stewart, and G David Garson

69 Handbook of Economic Development, edited by Kuotsai Tom Liou

70 Handbook of Health Administration and Policy, edited by Anne Osborne

Kilpatrick and James A Johnson

72 Handbook on Taxation, edited by W Bartley Hildreth

and James A Richardson

73 Handbook of Comparative Public Administration in the Asia-Pacific Basin, edited by Hoi-kwok Wong and Hon S Chan

74 Handbook of Global Environmental Policy and Administration, edited by

Dennis L Soden and Brent S Steel

75 Handbook of State Government Administration, edited by

John J Gargan

76 Handbook of Global Legal Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

Jack Rabin, Gerald J Miller, and W Bartley Hildreth

80 Handbook of Global International Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

81 Handbook of Organizational Consultation: Second Edition, edited by

Robert T Golembiewski

82 Handbook of Global Political Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

83 Handbook of Global Technology Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

84 Handbook of Criminal Justice Administration, edited by

M A DuPont-Morales, Michael K Hooper, and Judy H Schmidt

85 Labor Relations in the Public Sector: Third Edition, edited by

88 Handbook of Global Social Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

and Amy Robb

89 Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective, Sixth Edition,

Ferrel Heady

90 Handbook of Public Quality Management, edited by Ronald J Stupak

and Peter M Leitner

91 Handbook of Public Management Practice and Reform, edited by

Kuotsai Tom Liou

93 Handbook of Crisis and Emergency Management, edited by

Ali Farazmand

94 Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration: Second Edition, edited by Ali Farazmand

95 Financial Planning and Management in Public Organizations,

Alan Walter Steiss and Emeka O Cyprian Nwagwu

96 Handbook of International Health Care Systems, edited by Khi V Thai,

Edward T Wimberley, and Sharon M McManus

97 Handbook of Monetary Policy, edited by Jack Rabin

and Glenn L Stevens

98 Handbook of Fiscal Policy, edited by Jack Rabin and Glenn L Stevens

99 Public Administration: An Interdisciplinary Critical Analysis, edited by

Eran Vigoda

100 Ironies in Organizational Development: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Robert T Golembiewski

101 Science and Technology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism, edited by

Tushar K Ghosh, Mark A Prelas, Dabir S Viswanath,

and Sudarshan K Loyalka

102 Strategic Management for Public and Nonprofit Organizations,

Alan Walter Steiss

103 Case Studies in Public Budgeting and Financial Management:

Second Edition, edited by Aman Khan and W Bartley Hildreth

104 Handbook of Conflict Management, edited by William J Pammer, Jr.

and Jerri Killian

105 Chaos Organization and Disaster Management, Alan Kirschenbaum

106 Handbook of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Administration and Policy, edited by Wallace Swan

Gedeon M Mudacumura, Desta Mebratu and M Shamsul Haque

109 Bioterrorism in Medical and Healthcare Administration, Laure Paquette

110 International Public Policy and Management: Policy Learning Beyond Regional, Cultural, and Political Boundaries, edited by David Levi-Faur

and Eran Vigoda-Gadot

111 Handbook of Public Information Systems, Second Edition, edited by

G David Garson

112 Handbook of Public Sector Economics, edited by Donijo Robbins

113 Handbook of Public Administration and Policy in the European Union,

edited by M Peter van der Hoek

114 Nonproliferation Issues for Weapons of Mass Destruction,

Mark A Prelas and Michael S Peck

115 Common Ground, Common Future: Moral Agency in Public

Administration, Professions, and Citizenship, Charles Garofalo

and Dean Geuras

116 Handbook of Organization Theory and Management: The Philosophical Approach, Second Edition, edited by Thomas D Lynch

and Peter L Cruise

117 International Development Governance, edited by

Ahmed Shafiqul Huque and Habib Zafarullah

118 Sustainable Development Policy and Administration, edited by

Gedeon M Mudacumura, Desta Mebratu, and M Shamsul Haque

119 Public Financial Management, edited by Howard A Frank

120 Handbook of Juvenile Justice: Theory and Practice, edited by

Barbara Sims and Pamela Preston

121 Emerging Infectious Diseases and the Threat to Occupational Health

in the U.S and Canada, edited by William Charney

122 Handbook of Technology Management in Public Administration,

edited by David Greisler and Ronald J Stupak

123 Handbook of Decision Making, edited by Göktu˘g Morçöl

124 Handbook of Public Administration, Third Edition, edited by Jack Rabin,

W Bartley Hildreth, and Gerald J Miller

125 Handbook of Public Policy Analysis, edited by Frank Fischer,

Gerald J Miller, and Mara S Sidney

126 Elements of Effective Governance: Measurement, Accountability and Participation, edited by Kathe Callahan

127 American Public Service: Radical Reform and the Merit System,

edited by James S Bowman and Jonathan P West

128 Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration, edited by

Jeremy Plant

129 The Art and Practice of Court Administration, Alexander B Aikman

130 Handbook of Globalization, Governance, and Public Administration,

edited by Ali Farazmand and Jack Pinkowski

131 Handbook of Globalization and the Environment, edited by Khi V Thai,

Dianne Rahm, and Jerrell D Coggburn

132 Personnel Management in Government: Politics and Process,

Sixth Edition, Norma M Riccucci and Katherine C Naff

133 Handbook of Police Administration, edited by Jim Ruiz

and Don Hummer

135 Social and Economic Control of Alcohol: The 21st Amendment in the 21st Century, edited by Carole L Jurkiewicz and Murphy J Painter

136 Government Public Relations: A Reader, edited by Mordecai Lee

137 Handbook of Military Administration, edited by Jeffrey A Weber

and Johan Eliasson

138 Disaster Management Handbook, edited by Jack Pinkowski

139 Homeland Security Handbook, edited by Jack Pinkowski

140 Health Capital and Sustainable Socioeconomic Development, edited by

Patricia A Cholewka and Mitra M Motlagh

141 Handbook of Administrative Reform: An International Perspective,

edited by Jerri Killian and Niklas Eklund

142 Government Budget Forecasting: Theory and Practice, edited by

Jinping Sun and Thomas D Lynch

143 Handbook of Long-Term Care Administration and Policy, edited by

Cynthia Massie Mara and Laura Katz Olson

144 Handbook of Employee Benefits and Administration, edited by

Christopher G Reddick and Jerrell D Coggburn

145 Business Improvement Districts: Research, Theories, and Controversies,

edited by Göktu ˘g Morçöl, Lorlene Hoyt, Jack W Meek,

and Ulf Zimmermann

146 International Handbook of Public Procurement, edited by Khi V Thai

147 State and Local Pension Fund Management, Jun Peng

148 Contracting for Services in State and Local Government Agencies,

William Sims Curry

149 Understanding Research Methods: A Guide for the Public and Nonprofit Manager, Donijo Robbins

150 Labor Relations in the Public Sector, Fourth Edition, Richard Kearney

151 Performance-Based Management Systems: Effective Implementation and Maintenance, Patria de Lancer Julnes

152 Handbook of Governmental Accounting, edited by Frederic B Bogui

153 Bureaucracy and Administration, edited by Ali Farazmand

154 Science and Technology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism,

Second Edition, edited by Tushar K Ghosh, Mark A Prelas,

Dabir S Viswanath, and Sudarshan K Loyalka

155 Handbook of Public Information Systems, Third Edition, edited by

Christopher M Shea and G David Garson

156 Public Administration in East Asia: Mainland China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan, edited by Evan M Berman, M Jae Moon, and Heungsuk Choi

157 Public Administration and Law: Third Edition, edited by

David H Rosenbloom, Rosemary O'Leary, and Joshua Chanin

Available Electronically PublicADMINISTRATIONnetBASE

Edited by

EVAN M BERMAN

M JAE MOON HEUNGSUK CHOI

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

IN EAST ASIA

MAINLAND CHINA, JAPAN, SOUTH KOREA, AND TAIWAN

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Contents

Acknowledgments xv About the Authors xvii Introduction: Comments on Purpose and Method xxv

1 Public Administration in East Asia: Common Roots, Ways,

and Tasks 1

Ev An B ERMAn

1

SeCtion Mainland China

YIj IA j Ing , Co o Rd In ATo R

2 History and Context of Public Administration in

Mainland China 33

YIj IA j In g

3 Public Policy Processes and Public Participation in Mainland

China 55

Ru ICHAng L I An d Q IAn WEI ZHu

4 Intergovernmental Relations in Mainland China 75

g ZHIYo ng L An An d g u o Qu An C HEn

5 Public Service Ethics and Anticorruption Efforts in

Mainland China 95

KE-Yo ng d o ng , Ho ng -SHAn Y Ang , An d X IAo Hu W An g

6 Performance Management Reforms in Mainland China 117

ZHIREn Z Ho u

7 Civil Service Reforms in Mainland China 145

MEng ZHo ng Z HAng An d W EI ZHo u

8 E-government in Mainland China 165

KAIf Eng Y Ang An d X IAo LIn X u

2

SeCtion Japan

KEng o A KIZu KI An d M ASAo K IKu CHI, Co o Rd In ATo RS

9 History and Context of Public Administration in japan 195

KEng o A KIZu KI

10 Public Policy Processes and Citizen Participation in japan 213

MASAo K IKu CHI

11 Intergovernmental Relations in japan 233

KEIICHI Mu To

12 Public Service Ethics and Corruption in japan 251

KAMIKo A KIo

13 Performance Management Reforms in japan 273

MASAo K IKu CHI

14 Civil Service Reform in japan 291

YASu Yu KI IMAn AKA

CHu ng -LAE CHo , j u n H Yu n H o ng , An d d EIL S WRIg HT

19 Public Service Ethics and Anticorruption Efforts in South Korea 401

SAM Yo u L LEE An d K WAng Ho j u n g

20 Performance Management Reforms in South Korea 427

CHAng K IL LEE An d M jAE Mo o n

21 The Civil Service System in the Republic of Korea 451

CHu ng -Yu Ang jAn , Co o Rd In ATo R

23 History and Context of Public Administration in Taiwan 497

CHu ng -Yu Ang jAn

24 Public Policy Processes and Citizen Participation in Taiwan 517

To ng -YI Hu Ang An d W En LIng T u

25 Intergovernmental Relations in Taiwan 533

d o n -Yu n C HEn An d Y u E-CHAng L u E

26 Public Service Ethics and Corruption in Taiwan 563

CHu n -MIng C HEn An d W En -jo ng j u An g

27 Performance Management Reforms in Taiwan 591

CHAo MEng j Hu Ang An d L u ng -TEng H u

28 Civil Service Reforms in Taiwan 609

TSAI-TSu S u

29 E-government in Taiwan 627

j Ing S HIAng , n AIYI HSIAo , An d j In L o

index 649

In particular, we want to thank a few people whose names would otherwise not be mentioned in this book: Maura May (Taylor & Francis), Moon Suk Ahn and Jennifer Kim (Korea University), Jai-Ok Shim (Korea Fulbright Association), President Se-Hwa Wu (National Chengchi University), Tony Lai (IDAS program director), Chan-Gon Kim (Seoul city government), Sybil Chen and Paloma Ho (NCCU), Matt Rankin (ASPA), Yan-yi Chang (doctoral candidate), Jay Shih (NCCU), Chun-Yuan Wang, and Akira Nakamura (Meiji University) Dr Jan also thanks President Kuan Chung, Vice President Wu Jin-lin, and Secretary-General Lin Shui-ji (all of the Examination Yuan) for sharing their valuable experiences and knowledge of Taiwanese public administration.

In addition, some people have passed away since the beginning of this project, and we remember them at this time Ray O’Connell (senior editor) and Professor Jack Rabin (editor-in-chief) encouraged and supported this work through Taylor & Francis Professor Deil Wright (University of North Carolina) was a leading scholar in the area

of intergovernmental relations who had a special relationship with South Korea and Japan We are sure that they are all smiling upon us now as they see this work come to fruition Beyond this, an untold number of people made it possible for us to work on this book though their support This includes colleagues, former teachers, and spouses Dira Berman and Jiajing Ni, who have helped us beyond words We deeply appreciate the support and contributions of all We are a community and a global one at that

Evan M Berman, M jae Moon, and

Huengsuk Choi, Editors

about the authors

Kamiko Akio is a professor and vice dean of the College of Policy Science of

Ritsumeikan University, Japan Prior to his current position, he was a professor

in the faculty of law of Kyoto University and then vice president of the Local Autonomy College, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications

Kengo Akizuki is a professor of public administration in the Graduate School of

Law and School of Government at Kyoto University, Japan He has coauthored The Japanese Civil Service and Economic Development (Oxford University Press, 1995) and Local Government Development in Post-War Japan (Oxford University Press,

2001) He was a fellow at Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in

1997 and World Bank consultant in 2001 and 2002

Kazuhiro Asano is a professor of political science in the faculty of law at Sapporo

University, Japan He was a research fellow at the Institute of Administrative Management He has authored a number of books on topics including United States–Japan summit talks after World War II, Japanese politics, and local gover-nance He was a visiting research fellow at Boston University in 2008

Evan M Berman is university chair professor at the National Chengchi University

(Taipei, Taiwan) Doctoral Program in Asia-Pacific Studies, and the Department

of Public Administration He is also the editor-in-chief of the American Society for Public Administration’s (ASPA) book series in public administration and public

policy (Taylor & Francis) and senior editor of Public Performance & Management Review His areas of interest are public administration performance, human rela-

tions and motivation, and emerging forms of governance He has published ous books and articles in the discipline He is also editor-in-chief of the third

numer-edition of the Encyclopedia of Public Administration and Public Policy (2007) Before

joining NCCU, he was the Huey McElveen Distinguished Professor at Louisiana State University, past recipient of a Distinguished Fulbright Scholarship at Yonsei University (Seoul, South Korea), and taught at the University of Central Florida (Orlando) and the University of Miami He was raised in the Netherlands

Chun-Ming Chen is an associate professor in the Department of Public Policy

and Management at Shih Hsin University, Taipei, Taiwan He received his PhD from the State University of New York at Buffalo His interests are in the areas

of bureaucrats and democratic administration, civil–military relations, and lic opinion and polling He has authored or coauthored papers published in the

pub-National Taiwan Police College Bulletin and Crime, Law and Social Change.

d on-Yun Chen is an associate professor in the Department of Public Administration

at National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan He received his PhD from the University of Rochester, New York His interests are in the areas of political econ-omy, democratic administration, and policy analysis He has authored or coau-

thored papers in Issues & Studies, International Journal of Public Administration, and Public Administration and Development.

g uoquan Chen is a professor of public administration in the School of Public

Administration, Zhejiang University, China He also serves as a board member

of the Standing Committee of Chinese Public Administration, vice chairman of the China County-Level Public Administration Association, and board member of

China’s National Supervisory Committee He has published books such as Social Transformation and Limited Government and Theory on Political Supervision He has

also published many journal articles

Chung-Lae Cho is an assistant professor in the Department of Public Administration

at Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea His research and teaching interests include intergovernmental relations, local governance, applied statistics, and research

methods He has published articles in Public Administration Review, Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Publius, and other journals.

Heungsuk Choi is a professor in the Department of Public Administration and

the director of the Office of International Affairs at Korea University, Seoul, South Korea He received his MA from Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, and earned his doctoral degree from the Maxwell School of Syracuse University, New York His major teaching and research areas are e-government, public manage-ment, local government, and regional innovation systems

Ke-yong d ong is a professor and dean in the School of Public Administration at

Renmin University, China His research interests are in human resource ment, social security management, and public management He has authored or coauthored approximately 50 scholarly articles and eight books related to issues in these areas

manage-jun Hyun Hong is an associate professor of the Department of Public

Administra-tion and associate dean of the graduate school at Chung-Ang University, Seoul,

South Korea He has authored or coauthored approximately 30 scholarly articles related to local autonomy and urban and regional analysis, especially in relation to regional disparity and city–county consolidation in Korea.

n aiyi Hsiao is an assistant professor in the Department of Public Administration

at National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan His interests are in the areas

of public management information systems, electronic governance, judgment and decision making, and policy analysis and simulation He has authored or coau-

thored papers published in the Government Information Quarterly, International Journal of Public Administration, and Public Administration and Development.

Lung-Teng Hu is an assistant professor in the Department of Public Policy and

Management at Shih Hsin University, Taipei, Taiwan His interests are in the areas

of knowledge management in the public sector, e-government and e-governance, and government performance measurement and management He received his PhD

in public administration from Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey He

has authored or coauthored papers in Public Performance & Management Review and Crime, Law and Social Change.

Chaomeng j Huang is a professor in the Department of Public Administration

and Policy at National Taipei University, Taiwan His interests are in the areas

of electronic government, public information management, strategic planning and management, and human resource management He received a dissertation award from the Askew School of Public Administration and Policy at Florida State

University, Tallahassee He has authored or coauthored papers in the Chinese Public Administration Review, Government Information Quarterly, and Proceedings of the 36th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences.

Tong-yi Huang is an associate professor in the Department of Public

Administra-tion at NaAdministra-tional Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan His interests are in the areas

of political sciences, public policy, public opinion surveys, and comparative

pol-itics He has authored or coauthored papers in the American Journal of Chinese Studies, International Journal of Public Administration, Journal of Democracy, Issues

& Studies, and Public Administration and Development.

Yasuyuki Imanaka is a professor at the Graduate School of Government at Kyoto

University, Japan As a career official, he has held various managerial positions in both central and local government He is former director general of the Equity and Investigation Bureau at the National Personnel Authority

Chung-yuang jan is a professor in the Department of Public Administration at

National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan, and its former chairperson His interests are in the areas of policy analysis, the administrative system in Communist

China, public information management systems, and crisis management He is rently serving as a member (ministerial level) of the Examination Yuan of Taiwan

cur-He received his PhD from the University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania cur-He has lished approximately 40 scholarly articles and eight books and has presented papers

pub-at a variety of conferences

Yijia jing is an associate professor and assistant dean of the School of International

Relations and Public Affairs, Fudan University, Shanghai He researches zation, governance, collaborative service delivery, and comparative public admin-istration He has special interest in collaborative service delivery in transitional countries and is the director of the Center for Collaborative Governance Research

privati-His recent articles have been published in Public Administration and Development and Public Administration Review.

Wen-jong juang is an assistant professor in the Department of Public Policy and

Management at Shih Hsin University, Taipei, Taiwan His interests are in the areas of policy analysis, research methods, and public opinion and polling He received his PhD in public administration from National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan He has been a visiting scholar at Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, since 2008 He has authored or coauthored approximately 12 scholarly articles and has presented papers at a variety of international conferences

Kwangho jung is an associate professor in the Graduate School of Public

Administra tion at Seoul National University, Republic of Korea He has authored

or coauthored more than 30 academic articles and published five books on terial leadership and policy instruments in East Asia

minis-Masao Kikuchi is an assistant professor of public policy and management in the

Department of Public Management, School of Business Administration at Meiji University in Tokyo Prior to his current position, he was research fellow at the Institute of Administrative Management and research associate at the Research Institute of Economy, Trade and Industry He is a member of the Research Advisory Council on Market Testing in Local Government in the Cabinet Office He holds a PhD in political science from Meiji University, Japan

Pan Suk Kim is a professor of public administration in the College of Government

and Business and director of the Institute for Regional Studies and Development

at Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea He has been secretary to the president for personnel policy in the Korean government and a Fulbright Visiting Scholar at Georgetown University He is currently a member of the United Nations Committee

of Experts on Public Administration (UN/CEPA) and deputy editor of the

International Review of Administrative Sciences (IRAS) He received the international

public administration award from the American Society for Public Administration

(ASPA) in 2009 and the Pierre De Celles Award from the International Association

of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA) in 2008

T j Lah is an associate professor in the Public Administration Department at

Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea He has published in the fields of public management and environmental policy His most recent publications have appeared

in journals such as Review of Public Personnel Administration, International Review

of Administrative Sciences, and International Review of Public Administration He

is the chair of the Special Committee for Korean Public Policy Studies of the Korean Association for Policy Studies and has been advising various governmental departments and agencies, including the Office of the Prime Minister, Ministry of Government Administration and Home Affairs, and Ministry of Environment

g Zhiyong Lan is a professor of public administration in the School of Public

Affairs, Arizona State University He also serves as a professor and associate dean for the School of Public Administration in Renmin University, China He has pub-

lished in major U.S and Chinese public administration journals, such as Public Administration Review, Journal of Public Administration: Theory and Research, Administration and Society, American Journal of Public Administration, American Public Administration Quarterly, Chinese Public Administration, Asian Journal of Public Administration, and a few other specialized journals He is also author or editor of several books, including Bureaucracy and Modern Society, American Local Government, and Public Policy in Action in the United States His current research

interests include urban governance and policy, the digital city, central–local ernment relations, and public administration theory

gov-Chang Kil Lee is an associate professor and director of the Department of Public

Administration at Sejong University, Seoul, South Korea He received his PhD degree in organizational behavior from Cornell University, Ithaca, New York He spent over 10 years in Korean government, where he was director of OECD Asian Center for Public Governance in Seoul His research interests are organizational innovation, performance management, and interorganizational networks

Sam Youl Lee is an assistant professor in the Department of Public Administration

at Yonsei University in Seoul, Republic of Korea He has authored or coauthored several academic articles and is currently working on comparative technology policy

in East Asia He received his PhD from H John Heinz III School of Public Policy and Management, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Seung jong Lee is a professor at the Graduate School of Public Administration of

the Seoul National University He earned his PhD degree in political science from Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois He has taught at the Korea University (2004–2006) and the Sungkyunkwan University Before starting his academic career, he served as a public official at the Board of Education of Kyunggi Province

His research interests include local government, citizen participation, and

politi-cal education He was previously editor-in-chief for the Journal of Korean Public Administration, Korean Policy Studies, and local Autonomy Studies.

Ruichang Li is an associate professor in the Department of Public Administration,

School of International Relations and Public Affairs, Fudan University, Shanghai

He specializes in emergency management, public and social policy analysis, and civil service institutions

jin Lo is a doctoral student in the Department of Public Administration at National

Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan His interests are in the areas of electronic government and deliberative democracy

Yue-Chang Lue is a professor in the Department of Public Administration and

Policy at National Taipei University, Taiwan His interests are in the areas of local government, personnel administration, and public administration He received his PhD in public administration from National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan

He has published approximately 40 scholarly articles and eight books and has sented papers at a variety of conferences

pre-M jae Moon is a professor of public administration at Yonsei University, Seoul,

South Korea He earned his BA from Yonsei University; his MA from the Graduate Institute of Peace Studies, Seoul; his MPA from the University of Texas at Austin; and his PhD in public administration from Syracuse University, New York His research interests include public management, information technology and envi-ronmental policy, and comparative public administration Before joining Yonsei University, he taught at the Graduate School of Public Affairs in the University of Colorado at Denver (1998–2002), George Bush School of Government and Public Service at Texas A&M University (2002–2004), and the Department of Public Administration in Korea University, Seoul His research has recently appeared in major public administration and policy journals He is currently editor-in-chief of

the International Journal of Public Administration.

Keiichi Muto is a senior research fellow at the Institute of Administrative

Management in Tokyo The institute is the nation’s core research institution in the public administration field He has initiated and been involved in various research projects on administrative management since 2001 He also has authored scholarly articles related to administrative reform of central and local government and rela-tionships between politicians and bureaucrats

Seung-Yong Rho is an assistant professor in the Department of Public Administration

at Seoul Women’s University He holds a PhD in public administration from Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, and received his MPA from the University

of Southern California, Los Angeles He has authored or coauthored approximately

20 scholarly articles and five books related to research-based governance, public agement and information technologies, and digital governance, especially in relation

man-to trust in government and digital interaction between citizens and government

jing Shiang is a professor and chairperson in the Department of Public Management

and Policy at Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan His interests are in the areas

of public policy, digital governance, and public policy analysis He received the dissertation award from the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and

Administration (NASPAA) in 1995 He was published in the Proceedings of 4th International Conference on E-government.

Tsai-Tsu Su is a professor and chairperson in the Department of Political Science

at National Taiwan University, Taipei She received her PhD from the Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Her interests are in the areas of public budgeting, public administration, and public policy analysis She has published approximately 40 scholarly articles and has presented papers at a variety of interna-tional conferences

Wenling Tu is an assistant professor in the Department of Public Policy and

Manage ment at Shih Hsin University, Taipei, Taiwan Her interests are in the areas of environmental policy and planning, public participation, globalization, and regional development She received her PhD from the University of California

at Berkeley She has authored or coauthored papers in the Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE International Symposium on Electronics and the Environment, Development and Change, and the International Journal of Environment and Sustainable Development.

XiaoHu Wang is a professor of public administration at the University of Central

Florida, Orlando He has published research articles in the areas of public performance

management and public financial management He is the author of Performance Analysis for Public and Nonprofit Organizations (Jones and Bartlett, 2009) and Financial Management in the Public Sector: Tools, Applications, and Cases (M E Sharpe, 2006).

d eil S Wright was an alumni distinguished professor emeritus of political science and

public administration at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill He authored and coauthored numerous articles and books in the public administration field and

his text, Understanding Intergovernmental Relations (in three editions), helped to define

the field in the 1970s and 1980s He received numerous recognitions, including the Mosher, Waldo, and Rita Mae Kelly awards, and had been a member of the National Academy of Public Administration since 1975 Deil passed away on June 30, 2009

Xiaolin Xu is a professor and dean of the School of Public Administration and

Policy, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, China He is a member

of the National Committee on MPA Education and of the Public Management Education Committee of the Ministry of Education He is the vice chair of the Political Science Association of Hubei Province and of the Public Administration Association of Hubei Province He researches theories of public administration and e-government.

Hong-shan Yang is an associate professor in the School of Public Administration

at Renmin University, China He received his PhD from Peking University in

2002 He focuses on administration reform, public service delivery, and urban

governance He is the author of Municipal Management (second edition, 2009), The Study of Intergovernmental Relations (2005), and Economic Globalization and Political Development (2003).

Kaifeng Yang is an associate professor and director of the Masters of Public

Administration Program in the Askew School of Public Administration and

Policy at Florida State University, Tallahassee He is the managing editor of Public Performance & Management Review and an editor for the book series on interna-

tional civic engagement produced by Information Age Publishing He has widely published in major public administration journals on issues including public man-agement and civic engagement

Mengzhong Zhang is a research professor and director of the Executive Master of

Public Management Program for China in the School of Public Policy, University

of Maryland at College Park He has authored or coauthored approximately 50 cles and edited or coedited five books His research interests are in the areas of comparative administrative reforms, fiscal and budgeting reforms, and intellectual history of public administration

arti-Wei Zhou is a doctoral student and director of Dongguan Social Research Center

at City College of Dongguan University of Technology, China He has authored or coauthored approximately 30 scholarly articles and five books related to research-based crisis management and nongovernmental organization research, especially

in relation to economic development, environmental issues, and social issues of the city of Dongguan

Zhiren Zhou is a professor of the School of Government, Peking University He

researches comparative public administration, government reform and innovation, public sector performance management, and methodology in public administration

Qianwei Zhu is a professor and chair of the Department of Public Administration,

School of International Relations and Public Affairs, Fudan University, Shanghai

He has authored and coauthored approximately 40 scholarly articles and five books; some of them have been related to the decision making of the Chinese government

introduction: Comments

on purpose and Method

An undeniable interest exists in matters about East Asia and its people, customs, and institutions This book serves the needs of those who wish to learn how gov-ernment works in East Asia—in particular, its public administration and related public policy processes The focus here is on the apparatus of government: the agencies, values, context, and policies within which they operate Whether readers are practitioners, professors, students, or simply those with plain curiosity, nowhere else will they find a book that provides such a comprehensive treatment of public administration in East Asia written by some of the most renowned scholars in the field Moreover, the chapters are written in a style that, we hope, is accessible to many

Admittedly, this book was born from my own curiosity about public istration in East Asia A comprehensive treatment on the topic in English or even native languages seemed to be lacking Of course, various books on trade policy have been written, and those on the politics of Mao sometimes give good insight into the operation of agencies in Mainland China, for example A few edited books contain a single chapter on countries in the Asia–Pacific region as well I strongly recommend that readers pick up 20 or so of these books and read them This will enrich understanding, provide context, and show persistent patterns that are invaluable What is missing, however, is “one-stop shopping” that pro-vides an in-depth overview on matters solely concerning public administration This book provides that essential reading Specifically, readers will find answers

How are ethical underpinnings of the civil service different in East Asia from

◾

those in the West?

Why are intergovernmental relations an essential issue in East Asia?

It should be noted that this is a book about administrative systems Political

issues about the sovereignty of Taiwan are not the target of discussion in this book

The phrases Taiwan and Mainland China used here refer to geographic areas in

which administrative systems are found.1 For example, it is a well-known fact that the island of Taiwan has a government and that people work for it; this can be studied Chapter authors do not make any statements, implied or otherwise, about matters of national sovereignty; this is a book of knowledge and scholarship only The editing of this book reflects this understanding, and all shortfalls rest with me and not with the authors.2

The book also has several distinctive features that we think readers will value:This account is written by those of the region, rather than by those outside

articles and books in the discipline

Authors were asked to cover essentials as well as advanced points in their

cific, in-depth matters

Authors had broad leeway and discretion to discuss topics about that they felt

◾

were most important for others outside the geographic area to know They could also discuss additional topics By doing so, we encouraged the use con-cepts or perspectives distinctive to their areas

Of course, I am the obvious exception to the first point I am not an insider

of East Asia In the spirit of full disclosure, I was raised in the Netherlands, spent

20 years of my professional career in the United States, and my wife is from Brazil, which I have visited often I have traveled several times to Africa, too I now work and live in East Asia (see “About the Authors”) The editorial team includes two other editors of the region and me But I think my familiarity with the West is an advantage in this effort

For example, Western concepts are culturally and contextually embedded to

a significant extent, and concepts such as “democracy” and “political neutrality” have meanings in Mainland China, governed by the Chinese Communist Party, distinctively different from those in the West Public participation in South Korea means something very deep after 30 years of autocratic and closed group decision making under military rule Such concepts demand articulation for Western read-ers lest they be misunderstood I also used my editorial and scholarly experience to inform authors of style and content expectations in the West, all of which makes for easier reading.3

Finally, every book has a little tale to tell This one began in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, which made landfall near New Orleans, where we then lived,

on August 29, 2005 A few weeks after Katrina, I received an e-mail from Marc Holzer (Rutgers University), who asked if I wanted to present a paper at the Seoul Development Institute My wife and I are still grateful for the reprieve There,

I met Moon Suk Ahn, then provost of Korea University, who invited me to teach

in the KU Summer Program, which I did in 2006 and 2007 During the summer

of 2006, Jae Moon (who had returned to Korea that year from the Bush School at Texas A&M University) and I hatched the plan for this book, for reasons and needs mentioned previously

A bit earlier, in April 2006, I had met Chung-Yuang Jan (then chairperson of the Department of Public Administration at National Chengchi University, Taiwan) at the annual conference of the American Society for Public Administration (held in Denver) This conference is among the best places to meet new people in our field Later that year, I visited him in Taiwan In 2006, on a visit to China, I met Yijia Jing (Fudan University, Shanghai) During the fall of 2006, Heungsuk Choi (for-mer chairperson of the Department of Public Administration at KU) introduced

me to Kengo Akizuki (Kyoto University), who introduced me to Masao Kikuchi (Meiji University)

Then, in February 2007, Heungsuk Choi generously organized a conference and meeting of this book’s coordinators and a few authors in Seoul The substantive result of this meeting is discussed in more detail later In the spring of 2008, I spent

4 months as a Distinguished Fulbright Scholar at Yonsei University, which also thered this book I thank the faculty for personal and professional help That’s the way it happened,4 along with many opportunities to foster and build community.5

fur-Method

Considerable thought went into the development of methods used for this book project Quite simply, a project like this requires many choices It is surely not about slapping chapters together and putting them between book covers What follows are the decisions we made and some of our reasons for them In short, we followed

a three-step process First, we developed the space within which we could operate

by seeking to avoid pitfalls Second, we decided how we wanted to fill in that space, keeping in mind our objectives and limitations Third, we developed methods for executing our approach, ensuring the highest quality work.6

This book is guided by the motivation to provide information and knowledge about public administration in East Asia that is currently seen as lacking, but that alone raises more questions than answers What type of information should be pur-sued? What criteria might be used to prioritize preferences for information? Why

do we think such information is desirable or even available? One approach may be simply to ignore such matters, but such an approach raises problems for analysis later It is not enough to know the historical facts of a country without also tying these back to some purpose or common body of knowledge It is not enough to pro-ceed from sentiments such as “everyone knows it is important” or “it is authentic.” New facts must be connected in some way; some structure is needed Journalism is needed, but it is insufficient by itself

Yet, danger also exists in bringing too much structure, which may presume that one is surer about one’s facts than is the case We know very little about the questions raised at the beginning of this introduction Indeed, at every twist and turn, uncertainty about the underlying facts in East Asia exists If we knew, we might ask different research questions These days, there is quite some talk about developing a theory of PA for East Asia that is somewhat different from that in the

US or UK, but theory building must proceed from a solid foundation of facts

It is evident that exploratory research that gets the facts right is needed In short, there are problems and dangers of bringing too much or too little advance thought

to this project

We decided to proceed by providing a scope of general topics that constitute essentials, as well as specific concerns that are relevant to a modern, international audience Such an approach increases the likelihood of relevance; it provides a con-text for prioritizing and, within that, great leeway for authors to discuss whatever they feel constitutes the basic understandings about their topic.7 In comparative studies, such an approach is not uncommon Comparative research faces numerous challenges Careful research designs are often stymied by a lack of comparable or quality data; this is a barrier to doing theory-inspired, empirical research One is often lucky enough to find comparable data that are useful in some way, period.8

There are also realistic problems of gaining the collaboration of expert scholars who, as successful people, are overextended and committed to their own research agendas Establishing a common framework that is broad enough to accommodate the interests of other scholars, while providing enough guidance to allow meaningful conclusions later (everyone wants a successful project), is a viable and useful strategy.During the meeting of coordinators (and a few authors) in Seoul on February

25, 2007, the first order of business was the selection of subjects within the broad frameworks Obviously, not everything can be covered For better or worse, the topics are those presented in this book Some, such as information technology and ethics, were included because of growing interest and relevance around the world

Others, such as public policy decision making, were included because of previously reported likely differences Still other topics that might not have much relationship

to those chosen were excluded; for example, even within the discipline, budgeting and finance often stand apart

Table 0.1 shows which topics were chosen, as well as what we asked authors to focus on as they wrote the chapter for their respective geographic areas This, too, was decided by the coordinators of each geographic region at the Seoul meeting It

is only through such teamwork for an edited book that the ground can be covered.The group of editors and coordinators developed detailed outlines for each chapter Some items urged authors to provide essential facts and contexts of their topics in East Asia, whereas others were closely related to core concepts that are part of public administration theories in the West By doing this, we wanted the chapters to bring out new facts as well as to connect with Western readers

The problem of too much or too little guidance was carefully debated for each chapter, and authors were free to deviate from topics in this outline It was the judgment of those present that this approach would bring out the best by authors

in their home countries while, importantly, increasing the possibility of subsequent cross-analysis of the different chapters later Some readers may feel that we provided too much guidance, whereas others may feel that we did not go far enough Readers can make up their own minds as to how well we and the authors succeeded The sequence of chapters provides the best possible introduction for authors, going from the general and broad to the specific and narrow

The final part of our method was quality control Authors were selected based

on their expertise and reputation for their subject matter in their home countries All manuscripts went through a three-stage review process In the first review, they were reviewed by coordinators and others in the country for coverage (scope), accu-racy, currency, and objectivity They were also reviewed by me as editor to ensure coverage that would allow for cross-analysis later The manuscripts were sent back

to the authors, who then resubmitted them In the second review, I edited the guage, format, and structure of the chapters to maximize readability and facilitate comparison; I spent between 3 hours and 3 days on each manuscript The chapters were then sent back to the authors for final review In the third review, copy editors

lan-of Taylor & Francis fine-tuned the language and made it suitable for publication.Thus, the result is now this book It might be noted that what is one person’s

“basic understanding” is sometimes another person’s “exploratory research.” I also hope this book increases familiarity with public administration in East Asia and thereby plays a useful role integrating our world just a little bit more Readers should feel free to contact the authors, all of whom have e-mail addresses that can

be found on the Internet

Evan Berman

table 0.1 detailed Chapter outlines provided to authors

First chapter: history and context of public administration

Context and driving forces in the development of public administration (PA) (include administrative culture, societal culture, institutional

description of government, definition of the public sector, including special districts, if any; note: the chapter focuses on central government) Historical periods of PA (focus on practices, not development of PA as a discipline, though may additionally mention that)

Administrative values (inherent in the historical periods, but also in relation

to any core values in Western PA: equity, democracy, accountability,

relationship with the legislature, efficiency of government, role of

government in society (restricted versus extensive or invasive); such a focus on “values” could help link the discussion to the broader global literature on PA

Emerging issues

Second chapter: public policy processes and citizen participation

Development of civil society

Citizen input in decision making (narrow), participatory democracy (broad) Public-policy-making process (include formulation, implementation, and evaluation stages; the point is to go beyond formulation in legislature) Cases of and innovations in citizen participation

Problems of policy-making processes

Policy networks (include nongovernmental actors)

Give examples or cases

third chapter: intergovernmental relations (iGr)

IGR reforms

Driving forces

Legal basis and barriers

Fiscal relationships

Results of IGR reforms

Include description of local government as involving special districts, public authorities, schools, taxing districts, etc.; again, discuss any unique features in the administrative system (e.g., Japan has very few special districts)

Give examples or cases

table 0.1 detailed Chapter outlines provided to authors (Continued) Fourth chapter: public service ethics and corruption

Ethics laws and legal compliance, especially unique features of the

administrative system (e.g., nature of financial disclosure)

Nature of corruption: individual (e.g., bribery) as well as institutional and organizational (e.g., revolving doors); give examples or cases

Efforts to inspire ethical behavior through moral leadership of senior

officials, ethics training, codes of ethics, ethics audits, performance

measurement relating to ethics, etc.; discuss unique features in the

administrative system; give examples or cases

Chapter may include international ranking (e.g., by Transparency

International or others)

Fifth chapter: performance management reforms

Definition of performance management; discuss program and

organizational-level reforms (individual-level reforms, e-government, and IGR are discussed in other chapters)

Brief overview of history of performance management in the administrative system; include discussion of relevant laws and legal framework

Performance management reforms during the last 10 years in detail;

provide examples; could include budgeting and agencification

Outcomes of performance management reforms—cases, systematic

evaluation, etc.

Examples or cases insofar as they are unique to the administrative system (e.g., avoid examples of balanced scorecards or citizen surveys that are common and already reported in the international literature)

Sixth chapter: civil service systems

Selection of workers and managers: civil service exams are a unique feature relative to the West

Status of civil servants in society

Benefits and compensation

Relationships between civil servants and elected officials

Major reforms in recent years (cases, foci; note: this should not be more

than 30–40% of the chapter)

Include individual-level performance management in this chapter (it is not part of the preceding chapter)

(Continued)

1 The public administration of Hong Kong and Macao are subjects of a second book:

Public Administration in South East Asia: Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Macao (estimated publication date: Fall 2010).

2 One wonders how far one should go with such statements Surely, phrases can be lifted out of context and, in this manner, trouble can be created Whether this is done intentionally or unintentionally, it says more about the reader than about the author’s intentions Again, none of the authors imply any political statement on the future of Taiwan through their words or their participation in this project This is a book about administrative systems, not countries

3 I carefully tried to convey the meanings and intentions of the authors Although most chapters were written in English, a few were not and some translations required

a good deal of work on the part of the editorial team As but one example, we were puzzled by one translation of what it might mean for managers to “turn into a feather bed.”

4 This is a paraphrase of the legendary U.S news anchor of the CBS Evening News,

Walter Cronkite (1916–2009), whose trademark send-off phrase was “and that’s the way it is on [that day’s date]” at the end of each newscast

5 For the record, during 2006 and 2008, we visited many countries in East and Southeast Asia (Japan, Thailand, Singapore, China, South Korea, Hong Kong, Macao, etc.), always visiting people in our field at universities Frequent visits to Asia increased

my familiarity and also offered evidence of increased globalization in our field

table 0.1 detailed Chapter outlines provided to authors (Continued)

Civil service culture at the microlevel (human interactions, bureaucratic culture, comparison with West?) Give examples—this could be an

interesting and important contribution

Obstacles for civil service reform

Examples or cases

Seventh Chapter in section: e-government

Main actors and institutional development

Cases and examples relating to improving (1) internal government

efficiency, (2) service to citizens, (3) e-democracy

Explanations of why the administrative system is doing or not doing well in the realm of e-government; driving forces, and outcomes

Infrastructure of IT and access (“digital divide”)

E-government in local government

Privacy and other legal concerns

Note: Each of the book’s four sections discusses an East Asian country and is

divided into seven chapters.

One thing led to another and now we live in Taiwan I especially thank Chung-Yuang Jan for making all of this possible My vision of globalization of our field is shared by National Chengchi University, which has an English-language PhD program closely related to our field My wife, Dira, a psychotherapist, is responsible for programs that increase the happiness of 1,000 international students at NCCU The story line of globalization and familiarity is a common one among people who now live and work

8 See, for example, O Eglene and S Dawes (2006) Challenges and strategies for

con-ducting international public management research Administration & Society 38 (5):

596–622 They note four categories of errors in such research: nonequivalency of key concepts, cultural stereotypes, universality assumptions, and poor comparative analysis

public administration

in east asia: Common

roots, ways, and tasks

Evan Berman

Contents

1.1 Introduction 21.2 A Matter of Perspective 41.3 A Bird’s Eye View 51.4 Culture as Mind, Mind as Culture 81.4.1 Individual/Group 91.4.2 Organization 91.4.3 End Purposes 111.5 Common Challenges 131.5.1 Participatory Government 131.5.2 Local Governance 151.5.3 Corruption 161.5.4 Performance 191.6 Conclusion 22Notes 24

1.1 introduction

Great interest and fascination exists about East Asia For many years, people have been interested in its culture and ways; from Buddhism to Zen, and from mod-ern electronics to cars, East Asia has become a growing part of the ways of other people Marco Polo (1254–1324) was among the first to take note, and his curios-ity extended to its governments too Outside East Asia, people may, often rightly, suspect that governments in East Asia have something to do with these countries’ unique features and strengths Not only do government bureaucrats execute policies and programs, but they also often give rise to new ones and shape how decisions by politicians are carried out Public managers design programs, direct resources, work with community leaders and elected officials, and work diligently until success, by some measure, is ensured Government, at its best, is a cooperative and proactive undertaking that involves many actors in society, and public managers are often at the heart of that.1

For people working or studying government, there are practical reasons to increase knowledge about public administration in East Asia In an increasingly global world, understanding how policies are made in other settings and how public managers see their roles and opportunities is essential to establishing pro-ductive working relationships Similarities are sometimes mistakenly presumed

to exist; the roles and powers of governments in East Asia are a bit different from those in the United States Different conceptions exist about the “political neutrality” of civil servants Countries do not prioritize or define “democracy”

in exactly the same way, and not every government or population is prone to viewing abortion as a preeminent moral issue, for example As the production

of knowledge has become more globally dispersed, a need exists to better stand the historic and present contexts and facts of different locales These facts and contexts shape policies, programs, how managers work, the role of laws, and outcomes The need to increase familiarity of public administration in East Asia

under-is increasingly felt by scholars throughout the world, as well as by scholars and students in the region.2

For a long time, there has been a need for a book that would bring together understanding and analysis of public administration in East Asia This chapter provides an essential overview of public administration in East Asia based on syn-theses of other chapters from this book Readers interested in the methodology used to develop these chapters should consult the book’s introduction Because this

is a book about administrative systems (rather than countries), the phrases Taiwan and Mainland China used in this book refer to the geographic areas in which these

administrative systems are found At the time of this writing, the sovereignty of the island known as Taiwan is hotly contested, but authors do not make any state-ments, implied or otherwise, about the future status of Taiwan This is a book of knowledge and scholarship only.3 All authors agreed, through their participation,

to honor this understanding because this is a sensitive issue to many participating Chinese authors Regarding the island of Taiwan, the known and uncontested facts are that it has a government for which people work and that can be studied The editing of this book reflects this understanding and use of language All shortfalls rest with me, not the authors.4

In comparative works, cautions about cultural relativism and cultural vincialism are always appropriate Cultural relativism refers to the principle that activities and beliefs of other peoples should be understood in terms of their cul-tures, whereas cultural provincialism refers to the danger of one’s own cultural worldview blinding one to seeing other, different points of view Try as we might to reach these ideal standards, at least they provide constant and powerful reminders

pro-to guard against closed-mindedness and instant judgments, no matter how right they appear at the time As editor and author, I made sure that this chapter was reviewed by editors and coordinators of the region

But the knife cuts both ways In a chapter in his book titled, “Some Warnings about Studying the Chinese Scientifically,” in the subsection “We Are Unique!” Michael Harris writes5:

All groups value their identity and creations (and) a culture or nation is one such grouping [G]roups, especially when they feel under attack (or even under scrutiny), are likely to close ranks and assert that they are special, different or unique from other cultures or nations The claim

of distinctiveness nourishes a group and sustains the pride of its bers Groups avoid making cross-cultural comparisons and challenge any comparisons that are made They will claim that the investigator did not adequately understand the culture examined, that the measures distorted the real cultural phenomena, or that the interpretations of the results were biased (pp 1–2)

mem-The word “unique” was omnipresent in many initial manuscript submissions People familiar with the history of East Asia should not be surprised; people in all four geographic areas—Mainland China, South Korea, Japan, and Taiwan—have a history—and often present day experience—of being threatened or under attack The corollary sense of national or historic pride is strong, and using the term “unique” may simply reflect prevailing society sentiments The term

“uniqueness” is also designed to create or justify separation from others It is easy to claim being unique in without critical examination or access to com-parative facts In truth, familiarity with public administration practices in East Asia is not widespread, even among many scholars in the region The chapters

in this book now provide the basis from which to identify commonality among the administrative systems of East Asia; it even examines the case for regional distinctiveness

1.2 a Matter of perspective

Regional distinctiveness is not a well-defined concept, but it surely points to such concepts as culture, history, and specific contemporary expressions that are impor-tant in some way Distinctiveness concerns unique or distinguishing features that are both important (“defining”) and enduring in nature Distinctiveness is not found

in trivial or insignificant matters, and it is not of a fleeting of nature; although it may change, it is typically connected to a people’s culture that is rooted in their past and thus enduring History gives rise to culture, which gives rise to distinc-tiveness Indeed, it is often observed that peoples with distinctive, common group (or isolated) histories tend to develop distinctive cultures too.6 Is there regional distinctiveness in the public administration of the four administrative systems of Mainland China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan? If so, what is it? All mod-ern governments face fairly similar tasks (raise revenue, provide education, health, security, etc.), but they may vary in how they go about these matters, sometimes because of their history, culture, or present conditions

The following 28 chapters provide understanding of their subject areas, but were not designed to answer the preceding question Although one can imagine

a dry accounting approach that tabulates areas of commonality and differences among the four administrative systems found in these chapters, such an approach, however insightful, is insufficiently designed to identify regional distinctiveness satisfactorily If we are to use this material to address this question, a creative and imaginative approach is needed

The first approach is that of a “bird’s eye view” that identifies and examines

relation-ships among the administrative systems of history and of the present day It asks, did administrative system X have something or do something that affected administrative system Y? Did administrative system Y articulate core values, have key challenges, or adopt important policies that affected administrative system Z? Based on such inter-actions and relations, is there a tale to be told of a common or shared past (history) that leads to common, perhaps even distinctive, roots of their administrative systems today? Answering these questions requires that one maintain the right distance.Analogously, pictures of the Earth taken from outer space point out common-alities among countries that are almost impossible to see when standing on land Here, we “hover” above the four administrative systems of East Asia and focus on identifying time-bound patterns of interaction The chapters in this book provide plenty of grist, facts, and pointers to make this bird’s eye view a rewarding and well-textured one.7

The second approach recognizes that public administration is in part the

prod-uct of how people see their relationship with government and other people It is about the ideas that people have in their minds about what and how public admin-istration should be This approach looks into these regional ideas about public administration and, more broadly, the cultures from which they come Rather than standing above the region, now we seek to go deeply into it Specifically, East Asia is

well known for its Confucianism philosophy, which provides ideas about relations between people and about the proper roles of people in society Contemporary culture is shaped by these understandings and provides valuable insights into the priorities of people and how they deal with specific situations; it provides the foun-dation and other building blocks on which public administration stands.

The third approach, then, identifies common tasks and challenges of public

administration mentioned by the authors of these chapters History and culture are important elements and sustaining forces of distinctiveness, but they do not always provide the substance—the items that constitute regional distinctiveness today Tasks and challenges are also born out of present day conditions and circumstances that are not always related to the past

Of course, commonality does not make for distinctiveness vis-à-vis the rest of the world Here, I identify histories, cultures, and tasks that differ from those that are common in the United States The selection of the latter speaks to the strong influence of U.S thought concerning public administration in the world market (a majority of book sales are expected to be in the United States) and, admittedly, the convenience of familiarity (see my brief biography in “About the Authors”).However, I am also keenly aware that U.S culture is itself highly distinctive (such as in its exceptional degree of individualism and fundamental distrust of strong, central government) and endeavor to consider this aspect when making conclusions Also, I am able to take some perspective from the companion book,

Public Administration in Southeast Asia: Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines, Hong Kong and Macao, which is soon to be published Each of the following sections discusses

the results of the preceding approaches and tells about common roots, common ways, and common tasks

1.3 a Bird’s eye View

Public administration in East Asia has common roots that live on today All authors note the historical emergence of civil service exams that are basic to entering the profession Among the four administrative systems, they originated in China in AD 587 and were first used in Korea in 958 Japan adopted them in 1887 Civil service exams have been available to Taiwan since the beginning of its current administrative system in 1949 The roots of these tests lie in the tradition and expectations that mandarins are of good character and among the best and brightest in society In all administrative systems, these tests are administered through the personnel departments and continue to be seen

as highly demanding Both in the ancient past and the present, they were designed to ensure that only very well-qualified candidates would be recruited by government.Most administrative systems have different exams for different levels of entrance grades The spirit and rigor of these exams are similar to those of bar exams for law-yers in the United States Kim reports that competition in civil service entrance exams is very stiff; in South Korea, only 2,900 of 187,562 applicants were selected