Applied Exercise Psychology: A Practitioner’s Guide to Improving Client Health and Fitness doc

It is this area, aimed for practitioners, that has yet to receive adequateattention by researchers and influence public exercise behavior.Examples of applied exercise psychology include

Department of Health, Physical Educationand Recreation at Middle Tennessee StateUniversity in Murfreesboro, TN Dr An-shel has been a professor of sport andexercise psychology and a practicing per-formance consultant in the fields of sportand exercise for 24 years In his earliercareer he was a director of physical edu-cation in the community recreation field.His degrees are from Illinois State Univer-sity (B.S.) in physical education, and grad-uate degrees in psychology of humanperformance from McGill University inMontreal (M.A.), and Florida State University (Ph.D.) He has au-

thored several books including Sport Psychology: From Theory to Practice (2003), Concepts in Fitness: A Balanced Approach to Good Health (2003), and Aerobics for Fitness (1998) His numerous book

chapters and research articles have covered topics such as copingwith stress, perfectionism, and drug use in sports, and strategies topromote exercise adherence His current research concerns validat-ing his Disconnected Values Model to improve exercise adherence

Dr Anshel is a member of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, can Psychological Association, Association for the Advancement ofApplied Sport Psychology, and Stress and Anxiety Research Society

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Springer Publishing Company, Inc.

Springer Publishing Company, Inc.

11 West 42nd Street

New York, NY 10036

Acquisitions Editor: Sheri W Sussman

Production Editor: Jeanne W Libby

Cover design by Joanne Honigman

Typeset by International Graphic Services, Inc., Newtown, PA

06 07 08 09 10 / 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Anshel, Mark H (Mark Howard),

1948-Applied exercise psychology : a practitioner’s guide to improving client health and fitness / Mark H Anshel.— 1st ed.

p cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8261-3214-6 (soft cover)

1 Exercise—Psychological aspects 2 Physical fitness—Psychological aspects I Title.

GV481.2.A57 2006

613.7’01'9—dc22 2005017980 Printed in the United States of America by Capital City Press.

and my father, Bernard, in recognition of their wonderful love and dedication in providing me with the opportunity to learn,

to achieve, and with the desire to improve the lives of others.

I am honored to be their legacy.

Foreword by Murphy M Thomas, PhD xv

2 Exercise Barriers: Why We Do Not Enjoy 11Physical Activity

3 Theories and Models of Exercise Behavior 23

5 Strategies For Promoting Exercise Motivation 53

6 Basic Applied Exercise Physiology for Consultants 67

10 A Proposed Values-Based Model for Promoting 131Exercise Behavior

11 Cognitive and Behavioral Strategies to Promote 147Exercise Performance

12 Maintaining Quality Control: Personal Trainers, 171Fitness Facilities, and Proper Programs

13 Future Directions in Exercise Consulting 179

Appendix C: Examples of Correct Stretches 207Recommended Books, Journals, and Website Resources 225

vii

We are in trouble The health of our country is being promised due to a lifestyle of overeating and sedentary habits Neverbefore in our history has the health of so many individuals beenput at risk due to the lethal combination of an inactive lifestyle andpoor nutrition It is now apparent that for the first time in U.S.history, our children will lead a shorter, lower quality of life thantheir parents The reason? We now live in what health practitionerscall an “obesity epidemic.” About two-thirds of adults are overweight

com-or obese, costing billions of dollars fcom-or related health care treatment.One group that has been ignored in the fight against overweightand obesity are mental health professionals (MHPs) The MHP is in

a very powerful position to promote a healthier lifestyle among theirclients The level of trust and emotional bonding between MHP andclient forms a rare opportunity for influencing the thoughts, emo-tions, and behaviors of persons—clients—who are highly receptive

to making positive, constructive, and significant changes in theirlife Forming new habits from leading a sedentary lifestyle to becom-ing more physically active, including regular exercise, requiresstrong commitment and additional time and energy Clients perceivetheir MHP, not unlike their physician, with extraordinary credibility

in suggesting lifestyle changes What have been missing, however,are the knowledge, skills, and willingness of MHPs to play a muchlarger role in suggesting exercise programs for clients, and the strate-gies needed to prescribe exercise routines and programs MHPsoften suggest to clients to initiate contact with specialists in begin-ning an exercise program fully expecting the fitness club industry

to meet client needs by providing an informed, high-quality program.Sadly, neither of these expectations—clients contacting fitness clubs

ix

and the clubs always offering high-quality programs and ship—has been met successfully.

leader-Another reason the MHP is in such a strong position to offerprescribed exercise is the strong association between exercise andimproved mental health Numerous studies have clearly shown thatmental health conditions related to stress, depression, anxiety, andnegative mood state can each be reduced by engaging in a program

of regular physical exercise Evidence of the benefits of physicalactivity on mental and physical well-being is overwhelming Yet,many individuals seem to prefer taking prescribed drugs rather than

to engage in an activity—exercise—that is both normal and can bevery enjoyable Why do so many individuals make this choice? Whyhas exercise become so undesirable in our culture?

We have been depending on the wrong professions and tries to help overcome the dilemma of an increasingly unhealthy,overweight society In all due respect to business owners who pro-vide a needed valuable service to the community, the fitness industryhas failed to play a much-needed significant role in improving exer-cise habits in our communities Fitness clubs are businesses, firstand foremost Like any business, income is a primary goal, as op-posed to looking after the health and welfare of its members overthe long term As a former member of this industry, I can attest tothe understandable, yet sad priority given to obtaining member-ships, yet providing mere adequate service to members Instead ofgiving needed individualized treatment to new club members, most

indus-of whom are novice exercisers, typically the new member is given

a quick introduction to the equipment and must pay an additionalfee for personal training or coaching

The quality of these trainers is very uneven Some trainers havesolid credentials, a strong knowledge of different types of exercises,proper techniques, and nutrition, and the ability to teach and moti-vate their clients These skilled trainers genuinely care about thehealth and welfare of their clients They provide valid testing, clearinstruction, full observation (as opposed to being distracted by oth-ers in the facility), phone their clients for regular updates on theirprogress or ascertain why the client is absent from a scheduledsession, review the client’s fitness records, and provide feedback

on these observations In addition, they are concerned about theirclient’s lifestyle, including nutrition, weight control, stress level, and

exercise adherence Other personal trainers, however, are forming this role for additional income, are more interested in theirown fitness (or socializing) than in their clients, and do not havethe requisite knowledge and communication skills They rarely speak

per-to their clients outside of the scheduled instructional session forwhich the client has paid Although their knowledge of exercisetechnique may be adequate, their background in related health areas(e.g., nutrition, meeting individual needs and goals) is limited Buy-ers beware!

Another group of professionals that has let down the community

in promoting health is, ironically, physicians and other medical titioners These individuals have the most significant potential toinfluence patient behavior due to their perceived knowledge andcredibility, and yet, they are not encouraging their patients to exer-cise The likely reasons include perceived lack of time to counselpatients on the importance of exercise and their fear of offendingtheir patient; physicians loathe disclosing that the likely cause of apatient’s illness or poor health data is related to obesity or the lack

prac-of exercise Nurses do not have a specific role or opportunity toprovide this information, and, like doctors, are often in similarlypoor physical condition as their patients There is one group ofprofessionals that has been ignored in the war against obesity, yetwho possesses a very unique opportunity to change behavior—the MHP

Another group of professionals that warrants recognition asbeing part of the problem, rather than the solution, in the fightagainst obesity and living a sedentary lifestyle is educators Thisgroup includes our physical education teachers, sports coaches, andthe school administrators who have eliminated physical educationprograms from the school curriculum Thinking back to physicaleducation class and involvement in competitive sports, how manychildren and adolescents—athletes and nonathletes—were pun-ished by being required to perform push-ups, run laps, and performother types of exercise? Exercise as a form of punishment has been

a tradition in the education system for many years Yet, associatingexercise with teacher/coach disapproval and undesirable student/athlete behaviors has contributed to developing negative attitudestoward physical activity In addition, hundreds of athletes have per-sonally disclosed to me their unnecessarily rigorous and excessive

training regimen The result is burnout toward engaging in exerciseafter their sport career is over The physical education and coachingprofessions have accomplished exactly the opposite of their mission.Their actions have developed negative, undesirable attitudes towardphysical activity rather than their stated mission to promote justthe opposite—to view exercise and sports as a healthy, positive, andeven necessary lifestyle In this manner, we have failed our children.

In summary, we have been dependent on various professions(e.g., fitness industry, medical practitioners, health and physicaleducators, sports coaches) and health-related organizations to pro-vide leadership, information, and opportunities to promote a health-ier lifestyle, including more physical activity Mental healthproviders have a unique role to influence the behaviors of theirclients in the fight against obesity and to increase exercise habits.For whom was this book written? Any person who in a position

of providing counsel or advice to a client or patient will benefit fromthis book, but primarily for mental health providers (e.g., psychia-trists, psychologists, therapists, counselors, consultants) whose re-lationship with clients provides a particularly unique opportunity

to gain entry for proposing lifestyle changes Physicians, nurses,physical educators, athletic directors, sports coaches, fitness clubowners and managers, personal trainers, organizational consultants,sport psychology consultants, allied health and rehabilitation profes-sionals, and students (graduate and undergraduate) who intend toenter a career in any of the previously mentioned fields will allbenefit from this book It is these individuals who will have an ex-traordinarily powerful influence on the lives of others with whomthey consult in promoting mental and physical health

Finally, it is important to recognize the importance of a newfield of study and practice called exercise psychology Since 1988

when the Journal of Sport Psychology was renamed the Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, this field of study now has four journals in

the English language with the terms “exercise psychology” in thetitle The American Psychological Association has a Sport and Exer-cise Psychology Section, Division 47 One formal definition of exer-cise psychology is “the study of the brain and behavior in physicalactivity and exercise settings Its main focus has been the psychobio-logical, behavioral, and social cognitive antecedents and conse-quences of acute and chronic exercise” (Buckworth & Dishman,

2002, p 17) According to Berger, Pargman, and Weinberg (2002),exercise psychology includes the ways in which exercise altersmood, reduces stress, is a partial treatment in reducing the effects

of mental disorders, enhances self-concept and confidence, and canlead to positive or negative addiction/dependence Readers are in-vited to see chapter 11 in Anshel (2003b) for an extensive overview

of this field

One related area, however, that has become relatively

unex-plored is applied exercise psychology (Anshel, 2003b, chapter 11) It

is this area, aimed for practitioners, that has yet to receive adequateattention by researchers and influence public exercise behavior.Examples of applied exercise psychology include examining effectiveinterventions that influence exercise participation and adherenceamong healthy and unhealthy populations, designing specific exer-cise programs that lead to psychological and emotional benefits,studying the psychological predictors of exercise participation andadherence, identifying the effects of cognitive and behavioral strate-gies on exercise performance, and determining the extent to whichexercise influences a person’s psychological dispositions—and themechanisms for these changes The objective of applied exercisepsychology is to determine the efficacy of applying the existingknowledge in this field in explaining, describing, predicting, or chang-ing exercise behavior

This book contains 13 chapters Chapter 1 outlines the field ofapplied exercise psychology Chapter 2 provides an overview of thereasons we begin and then end exercise regimens, including commonexercise barriers Common theories and models of exercise psychol-ogy are presented in chapter 3 to enhance credibility in the field,and to provide a conceptual framework for exercise psychologyinterventions Mental health benefits, one popular motive for MHPs

to prescribe exercise to clients, are explained in chapter 4 Thischapter is especially important for MHPs to recognize the array ofpsychological benefits of prescribing exercise programs to theirclients Our culture is far too dependent on pharmaceutical agents

to combat a host of mental disorders, while ignoring a very naturalantidote—exercise There is vast research support on the benefits

of exercise on depression, anxiety, chronic and acute stress, andother undesirable mental conditions This chapter provides recom-mendations about how to prescribe exercise programs to addressclient problems

Perhaps the most fundamental attitude that leads to exerciseengagement is motivation Chapter 5 provides strategies that pro-mote healthy attitudes about exercise, with a particular focus ondeveloping and maintaining intrinsic motivation It is important thatMHPs who prescribe exercise programs know basic exercise physiol-ogy; therefore, chapter 6 provides this information using a narrativethat is very readable and understandable Chapter 7 focuses onprescription strategies to meet different fitness needs, includingimproving cardiovascular, strength, and flexibility fitness While fos-tering a clients’ decision to begin an exercise program is the primarygoal for MHPs, chapter 8 addresses ways to encourage the secondarygoal of maintaining an exercise habit, called exercise adherence.Included in the client population of most MHPs will be individualswith unique characteristics Special considerations for counselingthese clients (e.g., rehabilitation, children, elderly, pregnant women)are covered in chapter 9.

Chapter 10 describes an intervention model that I have oped over the past several years based on my work with corporateclients and, more recently, promoting exercise among universityfaculty and police officers It is a very unique approach to exerciseparticipation and adherence because it addresses the link between

devel-a person’s vdevel-alues (e.g., good hedevel-alth, fdevel-amily) devel-and their negdevel-ative hdevel-abits(e.g., not exercising, poor nutrition) When the person determinesthere is a disconnect between their values and their negative habits,and then acknowledges the costs and long-term consequences ofthis disconnect, the person must then decide if this disconnect—andits costs and consequences—is acceptable If it is acceptable, changewill not occur However, if the person concludes this disconnect isunacceptable, they will often feel compelled to replace their negative(unhealthy) habit(s) with new, positive (healthy) routines

Chapter 11 reviews the array of cognitive and behavioral gies and program interventions MHPs can use to induce an exercisehabit Chapter 12 reviews ways to create a support system, thequalities of personal trainers, and guidelines for proper programs.Finally, future directions in exercise consulting are discussed inchapter 13 To become more acquainted with the professional litera-ture, a recommended reading list is provided and includes books,journals, and Website resources The Appendices include an exer-cise checklist, a list of exercise and health organizations, and ways

strate-to measure fitness outcomes Here’s hoping that this book makes asignificant impact on your practice and on the lives you touch

I am a licensed clinical psychologist Chris asked for my lastappointment, but arrived late, apologizing, “I couldn’t get away fromwork.” This was Chris’ first visit Chris began with safe topics “Ijust don’t feel well I have trouble going to sleep I have a lot of stuffgoing on at work, and a lot on my mind I wake up two or threetimes during the night, and when I get up in the morning I amexhausted I hate the mornings I’m tired all the time My spouse isbeginning to irritate me with incessant demands—take the kids toschool, get the laundry at the cleaners, remember to get Johnnie’sbirthday present I can never do enough.”

In a more confessional tone, Chris continued, “To be perfectlyhonest, my life is coming apart For the first time ever I don’t knowwhat to do I didn’t come here for sympathy or for you to analyze

my childhood I need something practical I need a plan to feelhealthy again My life is out of control I put on 15 pounds, and in

9 months my clothes don’t fit any more I feel tense and irritable Idon’t rest, and my productivity at work is down, although I amworking more than ever before My love life stinks I love my familyand I love my work, but I’m ready to leave everything Somethinghas got to change!”

In 35 years of practice as a clinical psychologist, I have seenmany men and women reach the end of their rope Those whopractice mental health care are trained to evaluate alcohol abuse,know the signs of depression, deal with marital problems, and manyother maladies We tend to address these problems from a limitedprofessional perspective—psychological, biological, and social, etc.While we value a “holistic” approach to client treatment, and oftenrecommend that our clients “exercise more” to improve their mental

xv

and physical health, few practitioners know the science or have

adequate knowledge to systematically prescribe an exercise gram to clients and then monitor and evaluate their progress Theseare missing skills in the mental health profession

pro-Dr Anshel’s book for clients such as Chris and others whowould benefit from an intervention of regular exercise in addressingeach of this client’s clinical problems—stress, alcohol abuse, rela-tionship/marital problems, sexual functioning, need for practical so-lutions, desire to feel healthy, and being overweight This is where

Dr Anshel’s book, written for mental health professionals, can bevery useful in complimenting traditional psychotherapy and othertypes of cognitive-behavioral interventions

While we have known for years that exercise improves mentalhealth, there is an absence of education and training for mentalhealth professionals on improving client fitness through exercise.Instead, we recommend our clients “get more exercise,” and rely onpersonal trainers and staff at fitness facilities to provide this service.Sadly, most clients are typically overweight and unfit, feel uncomfort-able and physically incapable of performing capably in exercisesettings The barriers of initiating and maintaining an exercise pro-gram are extensive It is often the mental health provider who can

be the most influential resource in lifestyle behavior changes.Every mental health professional, medical practitioner, fitnessinstructor, and others who promote mental or physical health shouldread this book I can attest to the credibility, quality of writing, andclear application of content Informed mental health practitionersnow have information and guidelines for delivering a higher quality

of care to their clients

No one has more credibility and trust in the community toencourage behavior change than mental health professionals As aclinical psychologist, I am on the front lines in the battle against

obesity and our culture’s propensity to avoid exercise Applied cise Psychology provides guidelines for improving exercise habits

Exer-and dispelling the myth that lack of exercise, poor nutrition, Exer-andthe resultant weight gain are the normal evolution of life Sadly, thepremature development of diabetes, heart disease, certain cancers,and reduced quality of life are the result of this thinking

This book delivers on many fronts Grounded in science, though not about numbers or a treatise on experimental designs,

al-statistics, critiques of controlled groups, Dr Anshel instills the

em-pirical findings of exercise science into concise principles that can

be applied by any well-trained mental health specialist He

serves-up research in a practical, clear, and straightforward manner, anddelivers a credible, scientifically based book This is a clear applica-tion of the scientist-practitioner model

Dr Anshel articulates principles than can be readily generalized

to a wide range of clinical situations He proposes interventions thatare practicable Anshel is one of the rare researchers who speakthe language of the provider In a subtle and unassuming manner,

Dr Anshel integrates findings of exercise science with the best ries of the behavioral sciences and the principles of behavioralchange Anshel “delivers practice.”

theo-Dr Anshel’s unique credentials make him a credible authority

on applied exercise psychology He has co-authored two fitnessbooks, contributed book chapters, and is widely published in scien-tific journals His graduate degrees are in sport and exercise psychol-ogy He is a former fitness director in community recreation, and

he practiced in Australia as a licensed psychologist He combinesskills and knowledge to provide practitioners with meaningful, scien-tifically based recommendations to overcome our culture’s nega-tive lifestyles

I am intrigued by his Disconnected Values Model (chapter 10)which provides a behavioral approach to motivating client change inhealth behavior The model is based on linking the person’s negativehabits (e.g., lack of exercise) to his or her values (e.g., health, family),and helping the client identify the disconnect between their habitsand values This model informs one about the costs and long-termconsequences of this disconnect, and, if unacceptable, helps theclient generate an action plan that replaces the negative habit withpositive, health-enhancing routines

By describing the science that supports applied exercise cepts, and providing guidelines to help initiate, monitor, and adhere

con-to a long-term investment in exercise, Dr Anshel’s book will benefitthose mental health, medicine, and fitness professionals on whom

we depend to improve our quality of life

Murphy M Thomas, Ph.D.Thomas & Associates, PC

Murfreesboro, TN

What Is Applied Exercise

Psychology?

Individuals who exercise regularly are healthier, feel better,and are less likely to be overweight or obese as compared to individu-als who maintain a sedentary lifestyle Yet, most Western societiesremain more sedentary then ever and have abnormally high rates

of overweight and obesity It is apparent that the world, in general,and the U.S., in particular, is getting less and less healthy due to anepidemic of obesity due to overeating and the lack of physical activ-ity The health of many individuals is at risk because they are unable

or unwilling to change their eating and exercise habits

In the U.S., for instance, about 63% of U.S men and women areoverweight, and about 33% are classified as obese The likely reasonsare an epidemic of the combination of obesity and a sedentarylifestyle, leading to the widespread onset of types 1 and 2 diabetesand hypertension (Nestle & Jacobson, 2000) Approximately 60–70%

of adults who begin an exercise program will quit within 6–9 months,despite the widespread belief (82%) that exercise is beneficial togood health Taken together, the result of these unhealthy habits is

a widespread deterioration of quality of life

In her keynote address at the 2004 Society of Behavioral cine Conference in Baltimore, Maryland, Dr Risa J Lavizzo-Mourey,President and Chief Executive Officer of the Robert Wood JohnsonFoundation, pointed out that for the first time in U.S history, childrentoday will live a shorter, lower quality of life than their parents She

Medi-1

reported that since 1980, overweight in children, ages 6 to 11, andadolescents, has doubled and tripled, respectively However, whilethe causes of obesity are well known, habits that lead to it, specifi-cally poor nutrition and lack of exercise, have proven to be verydifficult to change.

Why, then, do so many of us tend to ignore the benefits ofphysical activity—for ourselves and for our children—and refuse toengage in regular exercise? One problem in overcoming this un-healthy behavior pattern is the development of lifelong, firmly en-

trenched (negative) habits Another reason may be the benefits associated with not exercising These “benefits” include more time

to do other things, not experiencing the unpleasant feelings of fatigueand discomfort, less chance of injury, less expensive if exercisingmeans purchasing special clothing or becoming a fitness club mem-ber, and not feeling intimidated or self-conscious when exercising

in the presence of others Of course, however, there are costs to

leading a sedentary lifestyle These include poorer general health,lower quality of life, weight gain (including life-threatening obesity),and lower self-esteem—to name a few When the question is asked,

“why do we decide to remain inactive and not engage in regularexercise,” the likely reason is because the benefits outweigh thecosts (see chapter 10 for additional discussion of the cost-benefittradeoff)

One group, collectively called mental health professionals (MHPs), which encompasses individuals who provide an array of

psychological services, can make a significant impact on improvingthe health and fitness of many individuals who seek counselingservices for various reasons Given the proven mental and physicalbenefits of exercise, it would be appear natural to help MHPs becomemore familiar with the advantages of helping their clients start anexercise program in conjunction with their therapeutic regimen.While everyone needs to exercise regularly, individuals who seekmental health services will particularly benefit from guidance in thisarea provided by their MHP

THE NEED FOR THIS BOOK

The genesis of this book is the apparent need to provide MHPs (e.g.,psychologists, therapists, counselors, medical personnel, personal

trainers) with the guidelines and skills needed to help their clientsachieve better physical and mental health and improved quality oflife by initiating a long-term commitment to exercise The willingness

of MHPs to embrace a new and exciting role in providing this neededservice would result in important ways to improve the health andquality of life of their clients

DEFINING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY,

EXERCISE, AND FITNESS

If mental health professionals are going to help clients develophealthy habits, particularly exercise, they need to be able to commu-nicate important terms and concepts accurately The three mostimportant concepts in improving client health and well-being are to

improve physical fitness through exercise and other forms of physical activity These terms will be a combination of the most frequently

cited definitions from the literature, particularly Corbin and say (2005)

Lind-Physical activity is usually defined as any bodily movement

pro-duced by voluntary muscular contractions that results in energyexpenditure, usually measured in kilocalories per unit of time Al-though it is highly desirable for every person to become more physi-cally active, not all forms of physical activity will improve physicalfitness and lead to other desirable health-related outcomes Forexample, although taking a slow stroll may have relaxing value and

be desirable to reduce stress and recover from a busy day, this form

of activity is not considered exercise and will not improve mostmeasures of health that are associated with exercise The moredesirable forms of activity are formally called exercise which leads

to physical fitness

Exercise is a subset, or type, of physical activity that consists

of planned, structured, repetitive, bodily movements that a personperforms for the purpose of improving or maintaining one or more

components of physical fitness or health Exercise may be acute— short term or single bout of activity—or chronic—carried out repeat-

edly over time, preferably several times per week each at variouslengths of time

Physical fitness is a set of attributes that a person possesses to

perform physical activity It is the body’s ability to function

effi-ciently and effectively and is comprised of numerous components.

Health-related physical fitness includes cardiovascular

efficiency/en-durance, body composition (percent of total body weight that is fat

as opposed to lean muscle tissue), muscular strength, and flexibility

Skill-related fitness components are ability, balance, coordination, speed, power, and reaction time Aerobic fitness consists of the maxi-

mal capacity of the cardiovascular system to take in and use oxygen,also called VO2max Most research that shows improved psychologi-cal outcomes, cognitive functioning, and quality of life reflects aero-bic forms of physical activity

DEFINING APPLIED EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY

A relatively new area of research and application has emerged in

recent years called exercise psychology, or more recently, applied exercise psychology Exercise psychology is defined as “the study

of psychological factors underlying participation and adherence inphysical activity programs” (Anshel et al., 1991, p 56) Lox, Martin,and Petruzzelle (2003) define exercise psychology as “concernedwith (a) the application of psychological principles to the promotionand maintenance of leisure physical activity (exercise), and (b) thepsychological and emotional consequences of leisure physical activ-ity” (p 5) Exercise psychology differs from sport psychology primar-ily concerning the nature of the population—athletes versus exerciseparticipants, the type of physical activity—sport versus exercise,and the goals of that activity—improved health and fitness versusoptimal athletic performance and successful outcomes Both areasconsist of attempts that explain, describe, and predict behavior.According to Berger, Pargman, and Weinberg (2002), exercisepsychology includes the ways in which exercise alters mood, re-duces stress, is a partial treatment to reducing the effects of mentaldisorders, enhances self-concept and confidence, and can lead topositive or negative addiction/dependence Other effects from in-creased aerobic training include reduced acute and chronic anxiety,reduced chronic depression, improved both acute and chronic paintolerance, reduced ratings of perceived exertion (explained later),and improved quality of life In an expansion of this description,Buckworth and Dishman (2002) also include “psychobiological, be-

havioral, and social cognitive antecedents and consequences of

acute and chronic exercise” (p 17) By antecedents, the authors

include which factors will predict who will engage in an ongoing

habit of exercise and who will quit The term consequences reflects

the study of exercise outcomes, that is, the ways in which exercise(both short term, also called acute, and long term, also referred to

as chronic) influences mental and emotional processes The effect

of mental skills on exercise performance is also included in thisdefinition For example, as discussed later, thinking positivethoughts (e.g., “I feel good” or “stay with it”) will result in betterendurance than thinking negative thoughts (e.g., “I don’t like this”

or “when will this be over?”) While there is a growing body ofresearch in exercise psychology, a neglected aspect of this field hasbeen to examine the effectiveness of research findings, theories, andmodels in exercise settings It is this area—applying the exerciseand sport psychology literature in exercise settings, and going be-yond the theories and research findings—that is the focus of thischapter

Researchers, educators, and practitioners need insights into thepsychological benefits of exercise, the reasons some of us exercisewhile others choose to be inactive, the reasons why others begin

an exercise program and then quit, and what each of us can do

to start and maintain a regular exercise regimen, a concept calledadherence, and to offer suggestions about how mental skills can beused to improve exercise performance An extensive review of theliterature (e.g., Berger, Pargman, & Weinberg, 2002; Buckworth &Dishman, 2002) reveals the following list of areas that define thefield of exercise psychology

• Designing specific exercise programs for experiencing chological benefits;

psy-• Examining positive addiction and commitment to exercise;

• Understanding the causes and antecedents of negative tion to exercise, in which excessive physical activity leads

addic-to injury, eating disorders resulting in excessive weight loss,social isolation, exercising when sick, or feeling depressed

or anxious (worried) if an exercise session is missed;

• Studying the psychological predictors (dispositions and sonality profile) of who will and will not engage in regularexercise;

per-• Determining the effects of short-term (acute) and long-term(chronic) exercise on changes in mood state;

• Measuring changes in selected personal dispositions due toexercise, such as various dimensions of self-esteem, confi-dence, optimism, and anxiety;

• Identifying the psychological benefits of regular exercise;

• Exercising to improve quality of life;

• Prescribing exercise as a tool in psychotherapy (e.g., sion, anxiety, emotional disturbances) for specific popula-tions, such as children, elderly, physically disabled;

depres-• Using exercise in rehabilitation settings (e.g., recovery frominjury, cardiac or pulmonary disease);

• Predisposing factors that explain the exercise high, flow, andpeak experience and how to facilitate these feelings;

• Studying the effectiveness of mental skills that improve cise performance;

exer-• Examining the effectiveness of cognitive and behavioral niques that promote exercise participation and adherence;

tech-• Predict exercise adherence and dropout; and

• Prescribing exercise as a stress management strategy.The principles, concepts, and theories that describe, explain,and predict sport performance also apply to all forms of humanperformance, including exercise There is now more research, arti-cles, books, and job opportunities related to factors that contribute

to exercise participation and nonparticipation, partly due to an creasingly overweight, inactive, unhealthy population The need tounderstand the reasons for these very unfortunate trends, particu-larly related to explaining a person’s sedentary lifestyle, and studyingeffective interventions that promote exercise behavior, is growing

in-In summary, exercise psychology is comprised of several ponents I’ve identified six areas of study and application: (1) exer-

com-cise motivation, (2) exercom-cise adherence and compliance, (3) use ofcognitive and behavioral strategies that promote exercise participa-tion, (4) strategies that foster exercise performance, (5) ways inwhich exercise influences mood and psychological well-being, and(6) effective exercise leadership These areas will be discussed indepth throughout the book.

EXERCISE PSYCHOLOGY CONSULTING:

A VOID IN THE FIELD

It is an established fact that exercise improves mental health Wefeel better when engaging in a regular program of physical activity,particularly aerobic-type exercise in which the heart rate is elevatedsignificantly Aerobic exercise consists of engaging in physical activ-ity over a relatively prolonged time period, during which time heartrate remains consistently elevated Aerobic exercise, and to a lesserextent, resistance training and brisk walking, have been shown toimprove mood state, enhance self-esteem and confidence, reducedepression, chronic and acute anxiety, and psycho-social stress, andpromote recovery from unpleasant events in one’s life

The results of intervention studies on promoting exercise

behav-ior as a permanent behavbehav-ior change, called exercise adherence, have

been equivocal (Buckworth & Dishman, 2002) Most individuals whostart an exercise program discontinue their participation withinthree to six months Adherence to healthy behaviors has challengedresearchers and practitioners for many years Sackett (1976), forexample, found that scheduled appointments for medical treatmentare missed 20 to 50% of the time, and that about 50% of patientsare remiss in taking their medications as prescribed by their physi-cian After 6 months, other health-related behaviors (e.g., smokingcessation, dietary restrictions, weight control strategies) have anadherence rate of below 50%

The focus of psychological consulting is to improve a person’sstate of mind and improve quality of life Both cognitive and behav-ioral approaches are usually taken in the consulting process to meet

a client’s needs While counseling and clinical training provide abroad overview of the techniques to promote mental health, thegraduate student is not trained in providing guidance in helping

clients start and maintain a fundamental behavioral strategy—exercise The purpose for this book is an attempt to overcome thisdeficiency in the education and training of psychologists and otherswho provide counsel to a sedentary and relatively unhealthy society.Who, then, is consulting exercise participants, and why do psycholo-gists need to become involved?

The Issue of Title: Who Is an Exercise Psychologist?

If practitioners in sport psychology are called sport psychologists,sport psychology consultants/counselors, or mental skills coaches,

do similar titles apply to individuals who work in exercise settings?Are there exercise psychologists/counselors/coaches? Berger et al

(2002) use the terms exercise psychologist on numerous occasions Yet, this title may not be correct Lets start with the title psychologist.

As the authors duly note, the title psychologist is legally protected,and requires that the professional be licensed by their State Board

of Licensed Psychologists (each state may have a similar, but notidentical, board identification) to practice psychology in the state

in which they reside and practice In addition, graduate psychologyprograms that result in licensure do not include courses in theexercise sciences Consequently, graduate students would not havecompleted a course in exercise psychology Thus, licensed psycholo-gists are rarely trained to work in exercise settings, or to havemastered the professional literature in providing counsel to promoteparticipation in and adherence to exercise programs Perhaps in aclinical population, in which exercise is a vehicle that provides adesirable treatment to overcome mental illness or some other psy-chopathology, students may have received information on the bene-fits of exercise Until university programs are in place to providecourse work and clinical training for working with clients in exercisesettings or who wish to engage in exercise, the term “exercise psy-chologist” is not very practical Perhaps a more accurate and valu-able title is “exercise (or mental skills) counselor, consultant, orcoach,” referring to a person trained in the exercise sciences, who

is familiar with the sport and exercise literature, and can provideguidance and nonclinical interventions to clients

DEFINING KEY TERMS

Consulting clients to engage in regular exercise requires mastery offundamental concepts and terms This is important for explaining toclients the different types of exercises, their purposes and expectedoutcomes, and how to meet the client’s personal needs (see Anshel,Reeves, & Roth, 2003)

Exercise

A form of leisure physical activity (as opposed to occupational orhousehold physical activity) that is undertaken to achieve a particu-lar objective such as reduced stress, improved fitness and health,improved physical appearance, and so on

Physical Activity

All bodily movement that cause increases in physical exertion yond that which occurs during normal activities of daily living

be-Cardiovascular (Aerobic) Fitness

Efficiency of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels to supply nutrients

to the body This type of fitness is reached through aerobic types

of exercise (e.g., jogging, swimming, brisk walking) over a prolongedtime period, usually 20 to 45 minutes It is the best way to burncalories and reduce or maintain body weight

Flexibility

The functional range of motion of a certain joint and its ing muscle groups Greater flexibility reduces the chance of joint-related injuries and stiffness

correspond-Muscular Strength

The ability of a muscle to exert force against a resistance Strongermuscles prevent or reduce the severity of an injury Muscularstrength, gained through resistance training, increases the percent of

weight that is lean muscle, which is desirable More muscle increases

metabolism, that is, the number of calories burned at rest to sustainlife Improved bone mass (i.e., stronger bones) also results fromresistance training

Body Composition

Consists of two components, the percentage of your body weightthat is body fat and the percentage of your body weight that is leanbody tissue (muscle, organs, bones, and bodily fluids)

In summary, it is essential that MHPs become familiar withessential concepts that will allow them to provide valuable andinsightful counsel to their clients—individuals who will benefit im-measurably from embarking on an exercise program Why is theMHP so important in helping clients to start exercising? Let’s viewthe exercise experience through the eyes of any novice exerciser.Starting an activity that will induce physical stress and discomfort,often in an environment filled with individuals who are younger and

in better physical condition, is very intimidating Clients will often

be filled with uncertainty, anxiety, self-consciousness, and possess

a lack of knowledge and skill about proper exercise technique Inaddition, they will be experiencing physical discomfort that will beexacerbated by using improper methods (e.g., lack of proper warm-

up, negative self-talk, lack of proper pacing) It is no wonder that atleast half of all individuals who begin an exercise program drop outwithin six months

The MHP has spent considerable time and energy in establishingtrust and mutual respect with his or her clients The goal is to helpclients feel the self-motivation needed to take the necessary risks

of embarking on a new and uncertain adventure—changing from asedentary to a more active and healthier lifestyle At the same time,the client’s mental disposition will go from unpleasant to pleasantemotions and dispositions, a particularly important issue for manyclients who seek counsel The MHP is in a unique position to provideboth emotional support and information to clients in providing guid-ance and leadership toward starting an exercise program Certainlythe health and fitness industry are not performing this function atoptimal efficiency The information provided in this book will assistthe MHP to have an important role in fostering new exercise ritualsamong their clients and improve both mental and physical health

in the process

Exercise Barriers: Why We Do Not Enjoy Physical Activity

Helping individuals begin a habit of regular exercise is likeherding a group of feral cats; it’s virtually impossible Or so it seems

I have worked for over 25 years with individuals who want to begin

an exercise program, and I have heard every excuse why a personchooses not to exercise regularly The most common excuse is lack

of time In response to this excuse, the client should consider this:There are 168 hours in a week A proper fitness program that includescardiovascular exercise should consume about 3 hours per week.Three hours is just 1% of 168 That’s all it takes—just 1% of a person’s

time Therefore, lack of time is not the real reason individuals do not exercise Instead, it is the perception of lack of time that is

the culprit

EXERCISE BARRIERS

Nevertheless, MHPs need to understand the sources of reasons ents have failed to prioritize their schedule to accommodate regularexercise These “reasons” are called exercise barriers In this chap-ter, I will examine the reasons people do exercise, and the reasonsthey do not—the common barriers to starting an exercise program.The reasons for dropping out of exercise after they begin will be

cli-11

covered in chapter 8 on exercise adherence Before addressing themotives for and against exercising, I want to offer possible explana-tions for a negative attitude toward physical activity.

Why We Do Not Enjoy Exercise

The Burned Out Former Athlete

Sports coaches can be cruel While physical training and getting “inshape” is an important feature of successful sports performance,sometimes a coach will exercise an athlete “to death.” Not literally,

of course, although athlete deaths from excessive exercise occurevery year, especially in hot weather In this instance, however, Irefer to overtraining Coaches simply require the athletes to performtoo much exercise to the point where the athlete develops a verynegative attitude toward it The consequence of “exercise burnout”among sports competitors is that when they have completed theirathletic careers, they are unlikely to stay in shape, or even performregular moderate exercise again I have discussed this problem withmany athletes and they all tend to agree that they have not engaged

in regular exercise following the end of their career Excessive weightgain is one result of this negative attitude

Exercise as Punishment

Our physical education teachers and sports coaches can take acollective bow on this issue as the culprits that contribute to negativeattitudes toward exercise Time and time again, physical educationteachers and coaches have used exercise as punishment starting ingrade school to discipline inappropriate student/athlete behavior

If the student was late to class or made a performance error, thestudent was “commanded” to run, do push-ups, or perform someother physically demanding task By associating exercise with unde-sirable behavior, this form of punishment fosters a negative attitude

toward exercise; instead of fun, exercise is a reminder of what not

to do

Injury

Fair enough It is wrong to exercise when injured Tissue damagecan become more extensive You have to “listen to your body,” rest

and heal if injured Nevertheless, sometimes pain is more fiction(phantom) than fact We are more susceptible to pain because ofour overweight and under-exercised status Past studies have shownthat fitness, both aerobic and strength-related, improves stabilityaround joints and makes us less likely to feel physical discomfort.

In addition, unfit individuals have a lower pain threshold than theirmore fit counterparts (Anshel & Russell, 1994)

Lack of Fitness Knowledge

Exercising correctly consists of techniques that must be learnedand practiced Proper instruction on getting started in your fitnessprogram, correct methods to lift weights, and proper ways to becomeaerobically fit without unnecessary stress and injury help preventdropout This rarely happens, however Novices pay their member-ship fee at a fitness club, and then are left to use the facilities ontheir own, not knowing proper protocol nor given any incentive

to keep going The fitness club industry, a business enterprise, isshameless when it comes to looking after the health and welfare oftheir members No wonder the membership retention rate is so low

Unpleasant Sensations From Vigorous Physical Activity

For many individuals, the feeling of being physically active is ant, if not unbearable There are several reasons for this First, weare who we train to be If an individual leads a sedentary lifestyleand becomes overweight, his or her body is accustomed to be com-fortable with that lifestyle The body’s physiology will be uncomfort-able with heightened physical exertion It does not help that mostindividuals do not receive guidance and instruction on proper exer-cise techniques, thereby exacerbating the problems associated withexertion Finally, the body types of some individuals are simply notcompatible with aerobic-type exercise A person’s body is catego-rized as ectomorph (slight build), mesomorph (medium build), and

unpleas-endomorph (heavy build) This is collectively called somatotype.

Persons with an endomorph body type (e.g., football linemen, tlers) have great difficulty with aerobic activity—sustained physicalexertion They are built for quick, rapid acceleration tasks Thus,body type partially explains a persons’ attraction toward a certaintype of exercise

wres-Our Sedentary Lifestyle

There is not a better exercise barrier in explaining the propensity

to avoid exercise than the fact that our culture breeds inactivity.Europeans, Scandinavians, Africans, and Asians, among others, areoften amazed at a lifestyle that encourages consumption of largeamounts of food, while remaining as physically inactive as possible

Look at us while we stand on an escalator going down Moving is

almost sacrilegious The consequence is an epidemic of overweightand obese individuals that will result in poorer health and shorterlifespan This is why it is so important to encourage clients tomove—to do anything active such as gardening, walking stairs, riding

a bicycle—anything that encourages physical activity When itcomes to structured exercise, it is imperative to start slow, thanbuild up our resistance to fatigue and discomfort Leading an activelifestyle will help overcome our refusal to move more than we mustand why we find exercise so undesirable

Common Barriers to Exercise Participation

There are reasons, good and bad, valid and invalid, that explain aperson’s decision to engage or not engage in regular exercise Hereare the most common and, sometimes, valid barriers

Convenience/Availability

Clearly, a person who perceives a workout facility as convenient ismore likely to exercise at that facility than if there is a perception

of the facility being inconvenient It is the individual’s perception of

a conveniently located facility rather than the actual proximity ofthe facility that is most important in determining exercise behavior(Sallis & Hovell, 1990)

Environmental Factors

The geographical location, climate, and neighborhood of a facilitywill influence exercise behavior Extreme temperatures, precipita-tion, or an unsafe environment all form valid reasons to avoidexercising

Physical Limitations

Experiencing injury, extreme discomfort, overweight or obesity, ease, and physical fatigue are reasons to avoid exercise The noviceexerciser must be patient in trying to reach fitness-related goals,and to slowly build endurance and resistance to fatigue

dis-Lack of Time

Addressed earlier in this chapter, the perceived lack of time is aprimary excuse to avoid exercise The facts are that individualsciting lack of time as a primary reason for not exercising are reallyexhibiting poor time management skills Think about what a personwould need to sacrifice in “free time” activities in order to take 3hours a week to exercise: less television, fewer or shorter phone callsand e-mail messages, slight reduction of time for social gathering, orfewer meals out, all of which consume an extensive amount of timeand energy There are several strategies a person can do to overcomethe “not enough time” barrier (discussed later)

Boredom or Lack of Enjoyment

For many individuals, physical activity is both unpleasant and citing Imagine an overweight individual leading a sedentary lifestylewalking alone around a track for 20–30 minutes? How about a personriding a stationary bicycle while perspiring and trying to catch his

unex-or her breath? Neither of these images creates a sense of excitementand enjoyment to the exerciser whose exercise history may be lim-ited and whose current fitness level and body weight makes thisundertaking stressful and undesirable Because so few exercise be-ginners recruit a performance coach or are given proper instruction,

it is no wonder the dropout rate for exercise novices is so high

Excessive or Unachievable Goals

Far too many exercise novices want to look like a favorite model orfilm star, or want to meet the expectations of others or meet a goalthat is unrealistic, perhaps even dangerous In fact, a goal such aslosing a large amount of weight in a relatively short time due to

a new exercise program may be potentially fatal Sadly, it is not

uncommon for a person to “make up” for missing weeks or evenyears of exercise by engaging in a highly intense program that leads

to cardiac arrest, even death

It took years to become an overweight, unfit individual andchanging this status will not take just a few weeks It is fair tosay, however, that research in the exercise physiology literatureconcerning the time needed to markedly improve fitness after begin-ning an exercise program is from 4 to 6 weeks (ACSM, 2001) Thisalso marks the time frame when exercise exertion will feel less in-tense; there will not be the same feeling of struggle and discomfort.Therefore, MHPs want to encourage their clients to exercise at leastthree times a week for four weeks so that they can begin to noticemore pleasant, fewer undesirable side effects from physical exertion

Lack of Confidence

In my study (Anshel, 2003a) on the effect of self-monitoring strategies

on exercise adherence among the faculty and staff employed at myuniversity, I personally interviewed all 103 participants Among thequestions asked was “What factors would lead you to quit exercisingand withdraw from this 8-week study?” They were asked to indicatethe perceived barriers of adhering to the exercise program Almost60% of the respondents indicated lack of confidence, and the needfor personal coaching and instruction

Lack of Instruction and Coaching

How can we expect individuals to feel safe, secure, and motivated

to pursue an exercise program unless they possess the requisiteknowledge and skill? Yet, this is exactly what we do We have wonder-ful exercise programs and facilities in most towns and cities, yet

we spend relatively little time introducing new exercisers to theequipment, proper methods of exercise, and skills needed to avoidinjury and obtain the maximal benefits of their program No wonderthe exercise dropout rate is so high The research literature (e.g.,general psychology, sport psychology) clearly indicates that it ishuman nature to withdraw from activities in which we do not achievesuccess or perceive ourselves as competent, a concept calledachievement motivation (Anshel, 2003b) Unless we provide a com-

fortable, non-threatening environment in which to offer instruction

to novice exercisers we can expect high dropout rates from cise programs

exer-Perceived Lack of Improvement

Returning to the theme of perceived competence (which leads tointrinsic motivation), persisting in an activity such as exercise isoften based on the perception of improved skills, superior perfor-mance outcomes, or that the level of physical exertion is lower (i.e.,exercising is getting easier) This is why exercise pre-testing, toestablish a fitness baseline prior to starting a program, has long-termmotivational value Comparing baseline scores with subsequent testscores demonstrates improvement (achievement)

Absence of Social Support

There is an extensive research base that clearly shows the highmotivational value of social support in exercise participation andadherence (Anshel, Reeves, & Roth, 2003) Social support includespositive reinforcement—verbal and nonverbal—from partners, fam-ily, and friends, exercising with a friend, obtaining instruction orcoaching, or exercising in an environment that is generally positiveand comfortable Learning a new set of (exercise) skills, visiting alocation that is unfamiliar or threatening (e.g., fitness facility), orengaging in a task that requires considerable effort are all predictors

of disengagement—starting and then quitting the activity Socialsupport, then, is the antidote of these factors; a virtual mandate forexercise novices

Taken together, there is no shortage of barriers that will preventindividuals from starting or maintaining their exercise program.Sadly, our unfit and overweight population is making it increasinglydifficult to enjoy the challenge of becoming fitter, leaner, and health-ier The good news, however, is that MHPs are in a position to helpthe transition of their clients from unfit and inactive, among otherundesirable characteristics, into persons who are both physicallyand mentally healthier The MHP can become the client’s own “per-formance coach” by providing the initial information and strategies

to overcome perceived barriers to exercise

EXERCISE MOTIVATION Why We Exercise

Before we can begin dealing with the barriers for exercising, weneed to examine the various reasons many individuals choose toexercise regularly How are they different from their sedentary coun-terparts? What causes an exerciser to engage in that ritual, whileothers choose to ignore it? Why do some individuals embrace thewords (and actions) of Dr Robert Hutchinson, the former President

at the University of Chicago, who said, “Every time I feel like ing I lie down until the feeling passes”? Despite such sentiments thatare no doubt shared by many individuals, there are situational andpersonal factors that promote exercise behavior—and statisticallypredict it They are as follows (unranked in importance):

exercis-Physique Self-Esteem

Self-esteem, the extent to which a person values him or herself, iscritical to explaining and predicting behavior As MHPs know, thereare several dimensions and sources of self-esteem, one of which isthe body Individuals who value their health, their physique, andwhose goal it is to improve and maintain their physical appearancehave high physique self-esteem These individuals are more likely toexercise than their low physique self-esteem counterparts Improvedfitness increases physique self-esteem

S646) MHPs should remind their clients that exercise has manyhealth benefits whether or not they are losing weight.

Affiliation/Social Benefits

Anytime people gather at a given location or share similar interests,they tend to interact based on shared interests Exercise is no excep-tion Fitness classes, weight training, yoga, running clubs, or simplyattending a fitness center or health club are examples of programs

in which the primary motive for attending includes a strong socialcomponent As Markland and Ingledew (1997) found in their develop-ment of the Exercise Motivation Inventory, social affiliation is astrong predictor of exercise motivation and persistence This is onereason the MHP wants to ensure that, if a client plans to attend anexercise facility, that he or she receive social support by exercisingwith a friend, will be introduced to other patrons, or will receivepersonal coaching at the venue

Improved Health

Naturally, one motive for exercising is to improve or maintain cal and mental health The health belief model (HBM) posits thatindividuals who associate exercise with improved health and wellbeing are more likely to begin and maintain an exercise programthan persons who do not make this association Sadly, the HBMhas received uneven support in previous studies Many sedentaryindividuals, some of whom at one time started and then quit anexercise program, still believe in its health benefits Thus, it is wrong

physi-to assume that clients will be more inclined physi-to exercise just becausethey believe that exercise improves health and well-being

One way to enhance the motivation for exercise based on proved health is to provide clients with health-related data Thestrongest motivator to change behavior for many individuals is toacknowledge that their health is at risk due to a current characteris-tic (e.g., overweight, obesity) or medical problem (e.g., poor results

im-on cholesterol testing), and that the best way to improve their healthstatus is to increase the amount of daily physical activity

Ill Health Avoidance

For many individuals, the desire to improve health is less motivating

than wanting to avoid poor health and disease Because clients tend

to strongly value their family and career, developing an illness ordisease would be devastating Few individuals would continue toact in a way that would lead to ill health or premature death, consid-ering the importance of their family, among other values Guilt, pain,and fear of being a burden to family and other healthcare givers arerelated motivators to avoid ill health Exercise becomes moredesirable.

Improved Fitness

For many individuals, improving fitness level becomes a very able goal We look, feel, and perform better when our fitness im-proves These desirable outcomes of a regular exercise create asense of competence and satisfaction that form the basis of intrinsicmotivation (Anshel, 2003b) Improved fitness becomes its own re-ward This is why fitness test scores (e.g., numerical data on aerobic

desir-or strength perfdesir-ormance) have great motivational value and should

be included at the start of an exercise program

Stress Management

There are several explanations for linking exercise to reduced stress,

as shown in numerous studies Perhaps the most apparent tion, the distraction hypothesis, is that exercise distracts us fromthoughts and tasks that are perceived as stressful Exercise alsochanges our biochemistry (e.g., endorphins), improves mood state,and provides a general feeling of well-being Sadly, stressed clientswill contend they have no time for exercise, when, in fact, exercisewill likely “de-stress” them

explana-Competitiveness

For individuals who have a competitive orientation, exercise can be

a form of intra-individual competition Running speed or endurance,amount or repetitions of lifting weights, weight loss, percent bodyfat reduced, and fitness test scores are all examples of opportunities

to compare previous with current performance, a form of tion that may increase a person’s drive to exceed their currentfitness level

competi-In summary, there are many sources of motivation that MHPscan recognize in helping to promote a client’s motivation to startand adhere to an exercise program In addition to knowing theirclient’s personal needs and characteristics, MHPs should offer achecklist of motives for exercising The MHP would help clientsdesignate which of these motives is most important, perhaps in rankorder, then formulate a plan to carry out the exercise program,keeping in mind the primary source of exercise motivation.