Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.

Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION ANDTRAINING NATIONAL ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY

CHEA BORA

!

SUSTAINABLE CULTURAL HERITAGE

TOURISM IN CAMBODIA: CASE STUDIES OF ANGKOR, PREAH VIHEAR AND SAMBO

PREIKUK

Economic Management (Tourism Economics)

Code: 9310110

A dissertation submitted to the National Economics University

in fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy in Tourism Management

SUPERVISORS:

1.!Assoc Prof Dr Pham Hong Chuong 2.!Dr Dong Xuan Dam

Hanoi, 2022

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that doctoral thesis “Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia: Case studies of Angkor, Preah Vihear and Sambo Preikuk is written by

me and has not been submitted for any degree or has not been published yet

I am responsible for my declaration

Bora CHEA

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This research has been completed with useful guidance, continuous encouragement, strong support, kind assistance and sincere love of a number of individuals whoI wish

to express my profound thanks and high appreciation here

First and foremost, my sincerest gratitude goes to the Government of Socialist Republic

of Vietnam through the Ministry of Education and Training Vietnam and the National Economics University for awarding me a doctoral scholarship that enabled me to

undertake this research

Next, my greatest gratitude goes to the Royal Government of Cambodia who always deliberately encourages and supports officials including myself to pursue higher education and exchange practical experiences for the purposes of capacity building Moreover, my profound thanks goes to my supervisors, Assoc Prof Dr Pham Hong Chuong, president of National Economics University and Dr Dong Xuan Dam who got

me started and provided a way ahead when I got stuck I will be forever thankful for their insightful feedback and suggestions, continuous encouragement and support throughout this research

Furthermore, my heartfelt thanks goes to Assoc Prof Dr Pham Truong Hoang, Head

of Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality for his useful guidance, and kind assistance with many of the important issues during my study and research

In addition, my special thanks goes to all professors and lecturers for their useful knowledge, hard work, and valuable time spending to teach me during my study Without you all, I can not complete each course successfully and have a chance to complete this research

Also, my sincere appreciation goes to all international tourists, local communities, private sectors, and officials in tourism sector who participated in this research It has been a privilege to learn about their invaluable experiences, useful thoughts and essential opinions

Finally, my deep love and sincere gratitude goes to my beloved nuclear and extended family for their great support and endless love, that gave me strength, courage and determination to pursue my goals even further

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS vii

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1.!Chapter Overview 1

1.2.!Rational of the Study 1

1.3.!Purpose of the Study 2

1.4.!Subject and Scope of the Study 3

1.5.!Contribution of the Study 4

1.6.!Context of the Study 5

1.7.!Outline of the Study 10

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1 Chapter Overview 12

2.2 The Concept of Cultural Heritage Tourism 12

2.2.1 Definition of Cultural Heritage Tourism 12

2.2.2 The Elements of Cultural Heritage Tourism 13

2.2.3 The Importance of Cultural Heritage Tourism 15

2.3 The Concept of Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism 16

2.3.1.Definition of SCHT 17

2.3.2 The Dimension of SCHT 18

2.3.3 The Importance of SCHT 21

2.4 Measures of Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism 22

2.4.1 The Importance of CHT Management 22

2.4.2 Actions to Manage CHT 24

2.4.3 The Engagement of Stakeholders in CHT 25

2.6 Chapter Summary 28

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 29

3.1 Chapter Overview 29

3.2 Research Design 29

3.2.1 Qualitative Research 30

3.2.2 Case Study 30

3.3 Research Methods 31

3.3.1 Participants and Recruitment Procedures 32

3.3.2 Data Collection Methods and Procedures 33

3.3.2.1 Pilot interview 34

3.3.2.2 Semi-structured interviews 34

3.3.2.3 Focus groups 36

3.3.2.4 Observation 38

3.3.2.5 Documentation 38

3.3.3 Data Analysis 38

3.3.3.1 Coding Procedures 38

3.3.3.2 Data Triangulation 39

3.4 Research Trustworthiness 40

3.4.1 Credibility 40

3.4.2 Dependability 41

3.4.3 Transferability 41

3.4.4 Confirmability 42

3.5 Ethical Consideration 42

3.5.1 Consent Form 42

3.5.2 Confidentiality and Anonymity 43

3.6 Chapter Summary 43

CHAPTER 4: THE RESULT OF FINDINGS 44

4.1 Chapter Overview 44

4.2 Profile of Case Studies 44

4.2.1 Angkor 44

4.2.2 Preah Vihear 45

4.2.3 Sambo Preikuk 45

4.4 Understanding of SCHT Dimension… 52

4.4.1 Economic Dimension of SCHT 52

4.4.2 Social Dimension of SCHT 60

4.4.3 Environmental Dimension of SCHT 68

4.5 Involvement and Collaboration of Stakeholders in SCHT 76

4.6 Development of SCHT in Cambodia 85

4.6.1 Key Tasks Accomplished Related to SCHT 85

4.6.2 Current Situation of SCHT in Cambodia 92

4.7 Meassures to Achieve SCHT in Cambodia 99

4.8 Chapter Summary 105

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS 107

5.1 Chapter Overview 107

5.2 Discussion 107

5.2.1 Global Perception of SCHT in Cambodia 107

5.2.2 Engagement and Collaborating Mechanism in SCHT 111

5.2.3 Current State of Development of SCHT in Cambodia 114

5.2.4 Measures to Achieve SCHT in Cambodia 116

5.3 General Conclusion 118

5.3.1 Clear Understaning of Perception of SCHT in Cambodia 118

5.3.2 Best Experience in Collaboration Mechanism but Need to Further Engage Relevant Stakeholders 118

5.3.3 Global Level of SCHT Achieved but Need to Enhance Dimensional Level 119

5.3.4 Successful Measure in Achieving SCHT in Cambodia 120

5.4 Recommendations 121

5.4.1 At National Level 121

5.4.2 At Site Level 122

5.5 Proposed Model of Managing SCHT 123

5.6 Limitation and Perspective of the Study 127

5.7 Chapter Summary 128

REFERENCES 129

APPENDICES 137

Appendix A: Research Information Sheet for Participants 137

Appendix C: Interview Protocol for Interview and Focus group 139

Appendix D: Summary Tables of Participant Responses 141

Table 4.1: Understanding of SCHT in Cambodia (Case of Angkor)……….……141

Table 4.2: Understanding of SCHT in Cambodia (Case of PVH) 141

Table 4.3: Understanding of SCHT in Cambodia (Case of SPK) 142

Table 4.4: Summary of Economic Dimension of SCHT (Case of Angkor) 142

Table 4.5: Summary of Economic Dimension of SCHT (Case of PHV) 143

Table 4.6: Summary of Economic Dimension of SCHT (Case of SPK) 143

Table 4.7: Summary of Social Dimension of SCHT (Case of Angkor) 143

Table 4.8: Summary of Social Dimension of SCHT (Case of PVH) 144

Table 4.9: Summary of Social Dimension of SCHT (Case of SPK) 144

Table 4.10: Summary of Environmental Dimension of SCHT (Case of Angkor) 145

Table 4.11: Summary of Environmental Dimension of SCHT (Case of PVH) 145

Table 4.12: Summary of Environmental Dimension of SCHT (Case of SPK) 145

Table 4.13: Involvement and collaboration of stakeholders in SCHT (Case of Angkor) 146

Table 4.14: Involvement and collaboration of stakeholders in SCHT (Case of PVH) 146

Table 4.15: Involvement and collaboration of stakeholders in SCHT (Case of SPK) 146

Table 4.16: Summary of Current Situation of SCHT in Cambodia (Case of Angkor) 147

Table 4.17: Summary of Current Situation of SCHT in Cambodia (Case of PVH) 147

Table 4.18: Summary of Current Situation of SCHT in Cambodia (Case of SPK) 147

Table 4.19: Summary of Measures to Achieve SCHT in Cambodia (Case of Angkor) 148

Table 4.20: Summary of Measures to Achieve SCHT in Cambodia (Case of PVH) 148

Table 4.21: Summary of Measures to Achieve SCHT in Cambodia (Case of SPK) 149

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CATA Cambodia Association of Travel Agents

CHT Cultural Heritage Tourism

CRA Cambodia Restaurant Association

CTF Cambodia Tourism Federation

GDP Gross Domestic Product

ICC International Coordination Committee

ICC-Angkor The International Coordination Committee for the Safeguarding

and Development of Historic Site of Angkor

ICC-PVH International Coordination Committee for the Conservation and

Enhancement of the Temple Preah Vihear ICCROM The International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and

Restoration of Cultural Property!

ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites

IT International Tourist

MCFA Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts

MICE Meeting, Incentive, Convention, Exhibition

MLMUPC Ministry of Land Management, Urban Planning and Construction MOE Ministry of Environment

MOI Ministry of Interior

MOP Ministry of Planning

OUV Outstanding Universal Value

SPK Sambo Preikuk

SPKNA Sambo Preikuk National Authority

SCHT Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization WCED World Commission on Environment and Development

WTTC World Travel And Tourism Council

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: The Characteristics of Research Participants……… 32

Table 3.2: The Summary of Participants for Semi-Structured Interviews……… 35

Table 3.3: The Characteristics of Participants for Focus Groups……… 36

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Classification of Cultural Heritage……….…14

Figure 2.2: The Three Pillars of Sustainability……… …18

Figure 2.3: Sustainable Tourism Cycle……….27

Figure 2.4: The Conceptual Framework of Sustainable CHT………….……… 28

Figure 3.1: Research Design ……… ……… ……… ………29

Figure 5.1: Proposed model of (3C+1C) of Collaboration in Managing SCHT in Cambodia 124

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1.! Chapter Overview

This chapter is an introduction chapter which provide an overall picture of the thesis It begins with the rational of the research in followed by the purpose of the research It then states limit the subject and scope of the research and state contribution of the research Finally, it ends with an outline of the thesis as a whole

1.2.! Rational of the Study

Tourism is considered one of the most rapid growing industries around the globe during the last several decades Meantime, it has become one of the main sources of income for many developing countries in the world as it brings in great amounts of income into a local economy in the form of spending on goods and services needed by tourists According to UNWTO (2017), this accounts for 30% of the world's trade of services, and 7% of overall exports of goods and services Also, tourism has established employment advantages in many related sectors ranging from construction to agriculture and telecommunication, in which one in eleven jobs allowing the tourism industry to generate USD 1.5 trillion in export earnings (UNWTO, 2017)

In this regard, there is a great deal of discourse on cultural heritage which becomes one

of the most important tourism resources, and Cultural Heritage Tourism (CHT) is one

of the most salient forms of industry today Cambodia is one country among those where CHT is backbone of economy Before the pandemic, Cambodia has gained over 50% of tourists visits cultural and heritage sites (MOT, 2019) Over the last two decades, CHT has become a pillar of equitable growth and played an instrumental role in poverty reduction in Cambodia The previous two decades of sustained high growth, together with peace and macro-economic stability, has provided a new opportunity for rapid poverty reduction and enhanced living standard In particular, the poverty rate dropped from 100 percent in 1979 to 11 percent in 2019 Undoubtedly, CHT is playing a substantial part in this growth

However, with the massive growth and the size, most experts in the field of tourism are concerned with the impact of the excessive development of tourism especially in the form of CHT This requires that we increase alertness Heritage should in no way suffer from these gains It is because CHT can be viewed as double-face sector One face: it can promote economic growth, employment and revenue for host region Another face: with increasing competition, cultural destinations must compete among each other,

which can cause imbalance between the three dimensions of sustainable tourism (Peng, 2011) This, accordingly, has provoked a lot of discussions about its sustainability The application of the sustainable development paradigm in tourism becomes a popular topic, as this sector is becoming a major source of growth in most countries of the world, particularly in developing countries, where their industrial capacity is still limited (Sharpley, 2000; Butcher, 2003; Dwyer, 2004) To achieve this, there should be a collaboration within some key stakeholders and all stakeholders need to build a mutual understanding on planning, managing, and developing cultural heritage in a sustainable and responsible manner, which will not harm and affect local culture At the same time, ecosystems and diversity should be strictly preserved In that sense, opinions and attitudes of tourism stakeholders on the protection of cultural heritage and the possibilities of sustainable tourism development in their environment are very important The guarantee of sustainable management of the site, sustainable income from this generation to the next generation of local community, and keeping high quality

of tourists' experiences are essential to what constitutes sustainable tourism or sustainable development of tourism (Peng, 2011) Thus, achieving Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism (SCHT) is an important practical topic to be discussed and studied The finding of this study could be a valuable contribution to literature in the tourism sector in the context of Cambodia, SCHT in particular, as few research studies were conducted related to CHT in Cambodia since the synergy between culture and tourism was introduced Those research studies seemed to focus more on the potential of cultural resources, especially in terms of how to develop and promote tourism products rather than the promotion of SCHT

Moreover, the study will inform the key stakeholders about the importance of sustainable cultural heritage tourism It will also provide stakeholders with essential insights to help address many remaining problems in cultural heritage sites, such as balancing economic development, social values, and environment and how to promote collaboration between different stakeholders instead of being too competitive and harm the sites

1.3.! Purpose of the Study

The main objectives of this study are to explore stakeholders’ perceptions of the importance of SCHT, and to investigate the measures to achieve SCHT in Cambodia, particularly at three different cultural heritage sites: Angkor, Preah Vihear (PVH) and Sambo Preikuk (SPK) archeological sites

To achieve these objectives, the following research questions were formulated:

1.! What are the importance of SCHT in Cambodia?

2.! How do stakeholders perceive SCHT in Cambodia?

3.! How do they collaborate in managing SCHT in Cambodia?

4.! What is the current situation of SCHT in Cambodia?

5.! How could SCHT be achieved in Cambodian context?

To investigate the answer to the above research questions, the study was grounded in an interpretive research paradigm in a qualitative multiple-case study Data collection tools included focus groups, semi-structured interviews, observation and documentation The focus groups were conducted with officials from the Ministry of Tourism (MOT), the Ministry of Cultures and Fine Arts (MCFA), the Ministry of Environment (MOE), Ministry of Land Management Urban Planning and Construction (MLMUPC), the APSARA National Authority (ANA), the Preah Vihear National Authority (PVHNA), the Sambo Preikuk National Authority (SPKNA) and the Provincial Authorities (PA) to collect a comprehensive information regarding the current practice and management of CHT at each site The semi-structured interviews were conducted with tourism stakeholders: international tourists, local communities, and private sectors (hotels, restaurants, and local tour operators) to get more insight about their understanding, involvement in promoting SCHT in their community The researcher also conducted the observation at the three-selected sites for data triangulation and to gain more information that might not be available in the interview and focus group Documentation was also used to gather information regarding policies, management plans, action plans and other important related information to gain more insight about managing SCHT in the three sites

1.4.! Subject and Scope of the Study

This research focused on the perspectives of sustainable cultural heritage tourism in Cambodia using three case studies: Angkor, PVH and SPK archeological sites It does not include other sites of cultural heritage tourism

According to literature review, there are two elements of cultural heritage: tangible and intangible And the scope of the cultural heritage in this study was limited to only the tangible which refers to the physical manifestations of cultural expressions and values created by humankind such as historical buildings, artworks, temples, archaeological sites, machinery and equipment, handicrafts and cultural landscapes in the three selected world heritage site

In regards to the sustainability of the sites, the study discussed on the three aspects of sustainable development: economic, social and environmental aspects

The study did not account for the perspective of participants from all over the places across the country, but only chose to discuss and interview those who were actively involved in the three world heritage sites Furthermore, the analysis of related stakeholders’ perspectives may have helped in developing a well-round of the study

1.5.! Contribution of the Study

For academic and theoretical aspect, the research contributes to the extent literature on the SCHT in the context of Cambodia For instance, SCHT is widely understood, in which SCHT is perceived as a type of tourism that focuses on preserving cultural heritage assets, natural environment, and cultural heritage understanding to ensure development for the long-term and next-generation, especially destination at income generation and local communities by integrating relevant stakeholders

This research provides a comprehensive framework of analysis framework on the importance of managing SCHT in Cambodia This research shows that there is a need

to realize that the development of SCHT is a shared responsibility When it comes to SCHT, the three dimensions of sustainability, economic, social and environmental dimensions, must be integrated from the same perspective

It becomes even more significant when the elements of cultural assets are turned into tourist potentials While the local community and private sector are expected to assist in appreciating, conserving, and managing CHT, the Government, MOT and relevant authorities need to bear greater responsibility and contribute more substantially to cultural sites, especially world heritage sites

The author proposes a model of managing SCHT, which could be applied effectively throughout the country through the context of the development of each region is not identical It shows that the participatory approach is important to enhance sustainable development at world heritage sites and promote CHT as a whole, especially contributing to local development, local community improvement and preservation of the environment

In addition, this study is based on the analysis of microeconomic elements of world heritage sites that allow a better representation of the reality of development, instead of proposing recommendations that presume reality on ideal hypotheses The use of semi-structural interviews, including in-depth interviews and focused group discussion with

a representative of the private sector, tourists, and local communities and the three field

studies enrich the source of empirical data to deduce the results, and lead to the proposal

of concrete policy and strategy for the Cambodian government, especially MOT, MCFA, ANA, PVHNA and SPKNA

Last but not least, it is also imperative to note that the issue of coopetition could arise from the different perspective of relevant stakeholders in the management and development of SCHT in world heritage sites But in the case of Cambodia, namely in the three case studies, the public sector, especially the Royal Government of Cambodia through its various institutions (MCFA, MOT, ANA, PNA, SNA…), plays very inevitable role in minimizing impact stemming from the issue of coopetition, in which the existence of ICC mechanism is efficient coordination platform to ensure smooth discussion, cooperation and work implementation and limiting inconvenient impact from any competition activities of different relevant stakeholders This original contribution is reflected in the proposed model of (3Ps+1C)

1.6.! Context of the Study

Tourism is one of the priority areas identified in the Rectangular Strategy Phase 31

of

the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) This sector, also known as “Green Gold”,

is an integral part of the green economy Its income is immediately injected into the national economy, contributing to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth and trade balance Cambodia received around 6.6 million international tourists in 2019, an increase of 6,6% compared to 2018 before significantly decreased in 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic

Cambodia, the Kingdom of Wonder, has a great potential for tourism development, based on “Culture and nature” The RGC is committed to actively promoting the momentum of the tourism sector, contributing to strengthening the economic base and reducing the poverty of people The vision is to promote Cambodian as a culturally and naturally responsible and sustainable tourism destination, absorbing tourism benefits, contributing to economic growth, increasing employment opportunities and reducing poverty In this regard, tourism development should be achieved in both quantity and quality to maximize the potential of a sense of consciousness and respect the nation's

cultural values

1.6.1 Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia

! The rectangular strategy is a political platform of the Cambodian government for the third, fourth and fifth term

It is an integrated structure of four large rectangles: agricultural sector development, rehabilitation and construction

of physical infrastructure, private sector development and job creation, and capacity building and development of human resources - who has good governance as the core of the reform

Cambodia has a great potential for the development of CHT, in which Cambodia is the only country in Asia with more than 1,000 ancient temples and foundations Thousands

of temples, especially the world heritage sites Angkor, PVH and SPK This vast cultural potential has made Cambodia a world-famous cultural tourist destination

Known as the Kingdom of Wonder and the Kingdom of Culture, Cambodia also has this advantage where over 50% of tourists visit cultural and heritage sites, namely Siem Reap-Angkor, PVH Temple, SPK temple, and other tangible intangible wonders In this connection, tourism and culture are closely linked together as complementary fibers that contribute significantly to enhancing attractiveness and competitiveness for tourism and

the nation Valuable culture is “Community Culture” In this sense, the cultural sector

plays an important role in developing a unique tourism product for one region or one country in the increasingly competitive tourism market Tourism is also source of income and resources that can support and strengthen cultural preservation and

development in an era of innovation and globalization under the concept “Conservation for Development and Development for Conservation”

As witnessed, in 2015, in cooperation with UNWTO and UNESCO, Cambodia successfully organized the first World Conference on Tourism and Culture with the participation of 100 countries worldwide who support setting out the Siem Reap

Declaration on Tourism Culture-Building a New Partnership The result and spirit of

this first conference have been disseminated worldwide annually As a result, Siem Reap-Angkor, home of world heritage, has consistently been awarded the world’s best tourist destination every year

Until present, there are three major intangible heritage sites, which were listed as UNESCO world heritage sites, including Angkor Wat archeological park (1992), Preah Vihear Temple (2008) and Temple Zone of Sambor Preikuk (2017)

Along with world intangible heritages, the listed intangible cultural heritages include Royal Ballet (2003), Sbek Thom or Khmer Shadow Puppetry (2005), Tug-of-war game (2015), Chapei Dang Veng, a long-necked, two-stringed lute (2016) and Lkhon Khol Wat Svay Andet (2018)

Moreover, according to MC, there are eight sites, which were placed on the tentative list for Cambodia for listing in World Heritage sites, including the site of Koh Ker in Preah Vihear province, site of the Kulen in Siem Reap province, site of Angkor Borei and Phnom Da in Takeo province, site of Oudong in Kandal province, Grouping of Beng Mealea in Siem Reap province, Grouping of the Prah Khan of Kompong Svay in

Kompong Thom province, Grouping of Banteay Chmar in Banteay Meanchey province and Grouping of Banteay Prei Nokor in Kampong Cham province

1.6.2 Dimensions of Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia

The policy for tourism in Cambodia is “culture and nature”, but most tourism activities are devoted to the cultural heritage sites, particularly promoting the Angkor complex as the most important attraction Through strong government efforts, Cambodia is one of the fastest-growing tourist destinations

Tourism sector in Cambodia has been an important part of export-led development strategies According to the national tourism policy and 2012-2020 Tourism Strategic Plan, the RGC mandates to develop of sustainable tourism for the benefit of the nation

as a significant tool for economic development and poverty alleviation In so doing, it shall respect national social and cultural values, and support environmental conservation

in the ways that meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs complying with the principle of sustainable development Its overall aim is to provide tourists with the highest quality of experience based on uniquely Cambodian values, attractions and sights In this context, the RGC undertakes to accord the tourism sector-foremost priority for national development The arrival of international tourists visiting Siem Reap, PHV, SPK, and other historic places has shown that CHT plays an important role in promoting the country's tourism development This achievement is realized through the abundance of cultural potentials both tangible and intangible, including thousands of ancient temples and architectures (some of them are listed in the human world heritage list of UNESCO), pagodas, food, boxing art, tradition and lifestyle and so on Moreover, currently, Koh Keh temple, Banteay Chhmar Temple, Bokator-boxing art, Cambodia traditional noodle! (នំប∃%&ក)

and some other cultural heritages are under the process of listing to UNESCO world heritage In this context, MOT has identified four priority zones for tourism development, in which Siem Reap and the surrounding area, considered to be a cultural destination, stand as the first priority zone

Tourism is given a greater importance, “in order not only to earn more foreign exchange but also to expose Cambodia to the World” However, the sector’s growth rates over the last ten years are now imposing pressures on the most popular destination, resulting in the need for a broad diversification strategy As a result, tourist destinations are being diversified from Angkor Wat into the southern coastal zone and forested northeastern

region, focusing on ecotourism, where environmental protection of the natural resources base becomes increasingly important

1.6.3 The Importance of Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia

CHT in Cambodia is important for various reasons The recent rapid development of economic and social sector is caused by the incomes created by the tourism sector, mainly from CHT business and supporting businesses Meanwhile, there is an increase

in a local production since CHT activities are strongly connected with other branches of the economy As CHT is employment demanding, there is an increase in employment

in the area, especially in the main destination area of the country, as guests participate and appreciate the local culture of the Khmer empire

This helps keep local people a positive catalyst for regional development It, thus, improves the demographic situation in surrounding areas by giving a perspective to the youth CHT leads to better overall infrastructure and living environment - not only for tourists, but for the host community, and the activities encompassing the whole territory

of the destination, especially access to the country's main destination As CHT gives the destination an identity, it gets known, this attracts interests and people, which again helps to mark local production in general Favorable for the economic and social development is that CHT generates new ideas and wishes to cooperate among the local population

CHT helps to establish and reinforce identity This is an essential element in preserving and enhancing national and local pride and spirit Culture and heritage features are critical in building a country’s image, thus CHT can be one of the key instruments in developing a positive image of a country internationally Cambodia is rapidly changed

in perception from the killing field of the Pol Pot regime to the charming land for tourists among ASEAN countries

Moreover, Cambodian CHT depends strongly on cultural and historical heritage Tourism makes an important contribution to culture and historical heritage by providing means for keeping the traditions alive and by financing the protection of heritage and increasing visitor appreciation of that heritage, such as the case that has been done successfully in Angkor Wat, PVH and SPK In this regard, tourism interest in the heritage site can be the key to providing political support for managing and protecting the heritage in question Well-managed CHT can encourage the revival of traditions and the restoration of sites and monuments CHT makes it possible to find the balance

between protection and the use of heritage If overused, the site is ruined, and no future income In such a way, there is a natural need for sustainable thinking

Finally, Cambodia has benefited from CHT through extra income to culture And as CHT helps differentiate demands and expand the season, it is essential in further developing the tourism industry CHT is more in line with modern trends and is thus likely to see a further increase within the tourism sector CHT is in line with the demand created by the rising educational levels, the aging population, the increasing economic role of women, the increase in short trips and the general search for meaning among people The so-called theme parks have created increased interest in CHT and Internet

is ideal medium to promote CHT The cultural tourists spend more money than the average tourist and travel longer As the increasing pace of life creates a need for free time and preservation of the past, CHT becomes big business for Cambodia

1.6.4 The Process of Development of Cultural Heritage Tourism in Cambodia

MOT is responsible at the state level for the development of CHT However, state tourism policy is generally shaped independently from cultural policy Consequently, CHT falls between two or more chairs Neither MOT nor MCFA has taken full operational responsibility for CHT development Besides the state level of relevant ministries, CHT in most world heritage sites is under the authority of special organs, such as ANA for Angkor, PVHNA for PVH and SPKNA for SPK MOT has its provincial offices in all 25 provinces, which are under the direct control of the ministry and local governor board

CHT in Cambodia is mentioned in national tourism development plans and strategies Cambodia Tourism National Development Plan for 2012-2020 points out, that the primary tourism resources of Cambodia are a historical heritage (ancient temples…), cultural heritage (music, dance and handicraft, folk festivals…), natural environment (landscape, conservation areas…)

Cambodia has no separate law on CHT The country has increasingly earned respect for implementing the laws and adopting a strict policy to protect the cultural heritage against pressure from other interests

“Our policy for heritage and CHT is not a passing fancy,” said Samdech Hun Sen, Prime Minister of Cambodia in the opening ceremony of the 37th

session of the World Heritage Committee in 2013 in Phnom Penh This expressed Cambodia’s commitment to continue its efforts to strengthen CHT as the government vowed to do anything that threatens the sanctity of the sites of Angkor, PVH and SPK, including other tangible and

intangible cultural heritages, or endangers their existence or outstanding universal value

The government also stresses benefits gained from the inscription on the list of World Heritage that has drawn regional and global attention to the promotion, safeguarding, and development of those sites to help promote the economy and improve people's living standards In an economic sense, the government also focuses on developing both tangible and intangible cultural assets by integrating this work into the development process, either within a regional or global framework This will indeed help to promote sustainable development of the tourism sector, in which cultural heritage plays a vital role in job creation, a factor contributing to poverty reduction and mobilizing revenue for the management and conservation of cultural assets” “In this regard, the RGC has

introduced “Conversation for Development, Development for Conservation” policy in

the tourism sector

The royal government, together with UNESCO and other stakeholders, has prepared a tourism management plan for Angkor and the region to ensure a balance between the imperatives of development and conservation needs in conformity with the new concept

of green development

The government needs more joint conservation, stressing that heritage belongs to humanity as a whole Therefore, everyone must do their best to conserve and value either tangible or intangible heritage at all places, regardless of the origin, nation, race or actual location of that heritage and culture

1.7.! Outline of the Study

This study is presented in five chapters

Chapter 1 (this chapter) gives the introduction to the study It justified the reason for

conducting this study Moreover, it!points out the purpose of the study following by the research questions to be investigated The scope and subject of study and the contribution of the study are also presented Furthermore, it provides a brief context of CHT in Cambodiaand the outline of the study to give a clear organizational structure of the whole thesis

Chapter 2 is the literature review This chapter discusses the concepts of CHT in

relation to the concept of sustainable development with various existing literature and draws lessons that can be applied in the study The discussion includes the conceptions

of key terms (tourism, culture, heritage and sustainability), the impacts of CHT on social, economic and environment, the challenges in promoting sustainable CHT, and

the mechanism for managing sustainable CHT The conceptual framework of the study

is also provided

Chapter 3 contains the research methodology This chapter describes the theoretical

and methodological framework that underpins the study It also explains how the study was conducted and how the data was collected, analyzed, and presented In addition, this chapter includes ways in which research trustworthiness and research ethical could

be obtained

Chapter 4 reports the findings of the three case studies: Angkor, PVH and SBPK from

all sources of data collection such as semi-structured interviews, focus group, observation and documentation

Chapter 5 discusses the findings of the three case studies in reference to the conceptual

framework of the research and existing literature regarding SCHT management and draws some conclusions of the importance of CHT in Cambodia and the necessity to develop sustainably Also, it provides recommendations for better management with a proposed model of managing SCHT for policy and practice Next, it states the limitation and perspective of the study The chapter finally finishes by concluding statements

CHATPER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Chapter Overview

This chapter initially focuses on the concept of cultural heritage tourism, including the definition of the key terms, and its elements and importance It then continues to explore the concept of SCHT covering the definition of the key terms, dimensions of SCHT, and its importance Finally, it states the measures to achieve SCHT

2.2 The Concept of Cultural Heritage Tourism

2.2.1 Definition of Cultural Heritage Tourism

CHT can take all forms of meaning due to the broad context of the term culture and heritage Thus, CHT in this study is defined as “visits by persons from outside the host community motivated wholly or in part by interest in historical, artistic, scientific or lifestyle/heritage offerings of a community, region, group or institution” (Silberberg,

1995, p 361) In other words, CHT is a sector of tourism that includes the traveling experiences of historical, cultural and natural resources that reflect the authentic stories and facts related to the people from the past and present

In addition to the above meaning, Ivanovic (2008) viewed cultural heritage tourism as

“traveling to experience the places and activities that authentically represent the stories and people of the past and the present” Through this definition, cultural heritage tourism comprises historic architecture and monuments, traditional landscapes, battlefields, traditional events and lifestyles and even gastronomy cooking art This is aligned with the definition of the World Heritage Convention in 2007, which includes both tangible and intangible assets to define cultural heritage

UNESCO (2003) defined intangible cultural heritage as “the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills - as well as the instruments, objects, artifacts and cultural spaces associated in addition to that - that communities, groups and, in some cases, individuals, recognized as part of their cultural heritage” By this definition, there is a transmission of intangible cultural heritage from one generation to another and is usually revitalized by social groups of people by their living environment but needs to reflect the original sense of their identity

Finally, Landorf (2009) stated that cultural heritage is the most popular trend in the tourism industry The sites of cultural heritage are full of valuable beauty and meaning and the potential and attractive asset for tourism development Cultural heritage tourist has exceptional relations between them This is because tourists want to experience traditional places, traditions, history, and cultural heritage in the host country

The tourism sector involved with the cultural and heritage values gives the tourists a significant number of opportunities to understand an unfamiliar place, people and time The importance of the heritage value increases with the arrival of people to that place, which has created new possibilities for the preservation of the sites Cultural and heritage tourism contributes to growth in the economic strength of the local people providing new job opportunities and promoting local cultures and values (National Trust for Historic Preservation, 2011)

2.2.2 The Elements of Cultural Heritage Tourism

Cultural heritage is more than ʻstones and bonesʼ from the past It refers to all the aspects

of a communityʼs past and present that it considers valuable, which cannot be recreated, and desires to pass on to future generations Thus, CHT involves traveling to other cultures and places to learn about their people, lifestyle, heritage and arts in an informed way that genuinely represents those cultures and their historical contexts (Craik, 1995, p.6) So his type of traveling helps people connect with certain social values, beliefs, religions, and customs that bring people to a sense of unity and belonging This allows people to understand their past generations and the history of where they came from The social beliefs, arts, traditions and history of people differ from country to country The cultural heritage represents the identity of that country and the heritage law of a country does the determination of cultural heritage and this law varies from one country

to another (Ruoss & Alfare, 2013, 2)

Cultural heritage can be classified into two categories: tangible and intangible, as shown

in Figure 2.1 Tangible heritage is the physical manifestations of cultural expressions and values created by humankind such as historical buildings, artworks, temples, archaeological sites, machinery and equipment, handicrafts and cultural landscapes The tangible heritages are either movable or immovable The heritage that cannot be moved such as historical buildings, temples and cultural landscapes are immovable heritage and the heritage that can be moved such as books, handicrafts, machinery and equipment are the movable heritage The intangible heritage encompasses non-physical manifestations

of cultural values and practices of the previous generations, which give the root and history of the cultural beliefs, and traditions that are practiced in the present generations The heritages such as customs, languages, music, dance, festivals, and religious and spiritual beliefs are examples of intangible heritage (Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNECAP), 2008, 6-7.)

(Source: Adapted from Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, 2008)

Figure 2.1 Classification of Cultural Heritage

The convention of UNESCO concerning the “Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage” held in 2003 explained the intangible heritage as a mainspring of cultural diversity and a guarantee of sustainable development According

to this convention the intangible heritage includes oral traditions and expressions including language as a vehicle of the intangible heritage, performing arts, social practices, rituals and festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe and traditional craftsmanship This type of heritages is transmitted from one to another generation which are constantly created by communities and groups in response

to their environment and their history which provides them a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity (UNESCO, 2012a)

The synchronized interconnection involving society and its norms and values forms a cultural heritage The interactions connecting the people such as symbols, technologies, and objects are tangible evidence of inherent norms and values establishing a symbiotic relationship between the tangible and the intangible heritage During the past decades,

a comprehensive approach was developed to define intangible heritage as a source of cultural identity, creativity and diversity The intangible heritage manifests a larger framework, within which the tangible heritage gives the precise meaning of their significance The tangible and intangible heritages are two sides of a coin, which rely

on each other, carrying meaning and the embedded memories of mankind (Bouchenaki,

cultureal values and practices (customs, language, music, dance, festivals, spiritual beliefs)

2003)

2.2.3 The Importance of Cultural Heritage Tourism

Many tourism studies highlight the negative and positive impacts of heritage tourism Heritage tourism can have far-reaching negative and positive impacts, which have often been divided into physical, environmental, socio-cultural, and economic impacts (McKercher & du Cros, 2002; Timothy & Nyaupane, 2009) In countries where the growth of heritage tourism is starting to take off and an ethos of conservation has not been established, ignorance of the negative impacts of tourism exists (McKercher & du Cros, 2002) Often, in many less-developed regions, considerations of tourism benefits outweigh any adverse costs as a result of that development

Indeed, it is axiomatic to understand that tourism can bring far-reaching benefits to host communities Tourism is often regarded as a creator of new employment opportunities for the host communities (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996) Furthermore, tourism can pave the way for the local infrastructure to improve as well as for the economies to be more entrepreneurial and self-reliant (McKercher & du Cros, 2002) Most importantly, tourism can contribute to social and cultural well-being by reviving the cultures which were lost or on the verge of being lost (Gelbman &Timothy, 2011) As a result, tourism has provided the justification for preserving cultural heritages that might otherwise have disappeared It is also worth noting that societal esteem may also be a result of heritage tourism In many countries, when communities realize their culture is of interest to outsiders, it incubates a sense of pride over their cultural heritage (Gelbman &Timothy, 2011) However, heritage tourism has negative phyiscal or environmental, socio-cultural, and economic consequences for the host communities despite all these benefits The impact of heritage tourism or tourists on the physical fabric of the environment is one of the profound impacts of heritage tourism (Gelbman &Timothy, 2011) Various studies have noted that excessive numbers or careless visitors cause severe damage to historical artifacts and ancient monuments (Fyall & Garrod, 1998; Austin, 2002; Timothy & Boyd, 2003) The rampant problems associated with the physical heritage environment include wear and tear, vandalism, excessive litter, erosion or soil compaction, air pollution, and illegal trade in artifacts (Timothy & Nyaupane, 2009; Gelbman &Timothy, 2011) Not all the impacts of heritage tourism are physical in nature Socio-cultural impacts also arise when tourists reach the destination The most deplorable socio-cultural impacts include forced displacement, the tension between residents and tourists, cultural commodification (Timothy & Boyd, 2003; Timothy & Nyaupane, 2009), and the expansion of prostitution (Nyaupane, Morais, & Dowler,

2006) In addition, the expansion of drug addiction, physical assaults, and crime levels are also often considered with the negative impacts of heritage tourism (Haralambopoulos & Pizam, 1996) Regarding the negative economic implications of heritage tourism, heritage tourism is often associated with the problem of inflating the price of goods and services at the destination despite its overwhelming economic benefits The expansion of tourism makes everyday life more expensive not only for tourists but also for residents (Gelbman &Timothy, 2011)

Hence, if the integration between heritage tourism and conservation has to be possible, one should mitigate these tourism challenges and protect local residents from any form

of tourism exploitation (McKercher & du Cros, 2002) To attain sustainable tourist flows

in the long run, it is vital to explore ways to maximize the merits and minimize the demerits of tourism for local residents (Kakiuchi & Iwamoto, 2008) Yet, a paucity of studies show how the government should advocate a balanced approach to heritage tourism by acknowledging both its beneficial and detrimental effects on local communities and their cultures Some studies have indicated that if an ignorant attitude

to the negative impacts of heritage tourism coupled with great attention only on its benefits existed, this would exacerbate the tendency to move to the edge of unsustainable heritage tourism development (Tosun, 1998; McKercher & du Cros, 2002)

2.3 The Concept of Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism

The impact of tourism on the World Heritage Sites (WHS) has drawn significant attention over the last 20 years for both research work and practical context This is because the listing as World Heritage could bring up the volume of tourists While the reality of this landscape is still under discussion (Buckley, 2004), the prospect of a remarkable increase in tourist interest is evoked as a catalyst for the designation of a new World Heritage

The pressure that tourism can exert on World Heritage, regardless of its growth, is combined by contradictory approaches at the heart of the World Heritage Convention,

which states that “World Heritage should retain a function in current community life while being conserved for transmission to future generations” (UNESCO, 1972)

Therefore, keeping World Heritage Site available for current and future generations, and sustainably managing tourism, are still a major problem to be discussed (Garrod & Fyall, 2000; Pedersen, 2002)

It was in 1993 that the management of WHS was first elaborated by Fielden and

Jokilehto in the Management Guidelines for the World Cultural Heritage Sites Since

then, research papers have been developed in the Management Guidelines giving

heritage a legacy for community’s life by discussing strategic goals with local authorities and the necessity for a broader tourism development policy and strategy for each region (Fielden & Jokilehto, 1998)

However, the main objective of the World Heritage Convention at that time is to ensure

that “ the identification, protection, conservation, presentation and transmission to future generations of cultural and natural heritage” (UNESCO, 1972) Through this, it

is not surprising that the focus of paperwork of the Management Guideline at that time

was mainly on the conservation of tangible heritage rather than emphasize the intangible heritage and visitor activity (Rodwell, 2002; Wilson & Boyle, 2006)

This principle was modified in 1997 when UNESCO adopted a standard nomination form for WHS that wants to be listed in the World Heritage list In that standard form,

a management plan becomes compulsory and a pre-requisite for all new nomination proposals and all inscribed sites needed to submit their management plan by 2005 On the other hand, since 1997, the need for formal planning and stakeholder engagement

has been increasingly elaborated in the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation

of the World Heritage Convention (UNESCO, 2005) In the Operational Guidelines,

UNESCO has required WHS to take into account continuous cycle after implementation, monitoring, evaluation and feedback, and the active participation of stakeholders in the planning process (UNESCO, 2005)

The attainment of an integrated management plan to realize “an appropriate and equitable balance between conservation, sustainability and development”, and ensuring

“…the active involvement of […] local communities” are emphasized on the Budapest Declaration on World Heritage (World Heritage Committee, 2002) However, the

debate continues since little guidance or advice is being developed, especially on realizing this ambition in practice (Wilson & Boyle, 2006)

2.3.1 Definition of Sustainable Heritage Tourism

This dissertation should define the term SCHT as a partnership that satisfies both heritage tourism and conservation objectives To make heritage tourism sustainable, both tourism and conservation stakeholders should acknowledge the mutual benefits of

2

These guidelines are intended to provide advice and suggestions for implementing the intentions of the World Heritage Convention (1972) Actions to implement the management of World Heritage sites should be based upon the traditions and legislation of the State Party, which should review its legislation and update it if necessary.

the symbiotic partnership of heritage tourism and conservation Sustainable heritage tourism requires not only mutually beneficial partnerships amongst stakeholders, but also it requires the long-term protection of heritage assets, a high-quality visitor experience, and respect for the wishes of local communities Furthermore, as part of a SCHT principle balancing the needs of local residents and visitors is essential to ensure that heritage tourism benefits everyone It is important to understand the kind and amount of tourism that the local community can handle

2.3.2 The Dimensions of Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism

As Hall and Lew (1998) mentioned, the concept of sustainability first came into public attention in 1980, sustainability has come a long way and many models and concepts have been developed to help develop the tourism industry more sustainably Brebbia and Beriatos (2011) stated that many different concepts have been developed to explain sustainability, however the three pillars model is the most popular

Figure 2.2: The Three Pillars of Sustainability

The three pillars of sustainability have been identified as a model relating to the concept

of sustainability and sustainable development This model concerns three main pillars that need to be considered when developing tourism sustainably The model identifies three critical aspects that help develop sustainable tourism ‘If any one pillar is weak than the system as a whole is unsustainable’ (Thwink, 2016) This quote suggests that

to develop tourism sustainably the three pillars need to associate with the integration of three elements: quality, continuity and balance (Bulin & Calaretu 2012) Quality refers

to the valuable experience of the travelers in the destination, thereby improving the

quality of life of the local people and the natural environment Furthermore, there is a need for continual supply of natural resources, culture and customs of the host destinations, and a balance between the tourism industry, tourism, local communities, and the supporters of environmental conservation to develop sustainable tourism Thus,

if one aspect of the model is weak or ignored this will impact other aspects

As explained earlier, sustainable development aims at identifying possible plans to reconcile economic, social and economic aspects Sustainable development aims to find

a sustainable and lasting balance between these three issues (O'Connor, 2002; Robinson, 2004) These three pillars of sustainable development correspond to different types of aspects that could be defined as follows (Zuindeau, 2000)

Economic aspect corresponds to any goods and services made by people/human beings

Indeed, it is preferable to differentiate between productive goods and services, such as machinery, factory, infrastructure, tools, etc.), and consumer products Long-term economic operations are necessary for the development of tourism Socio-economic benefits to all the stakeholders should be fairly distributed to eliminate poverty There should be stable employment and job opportunities for the local people Sustainable tourism development should strengthen the number and quality of local jobs including the level of pay and services Furthermore, the jobs should be available without discriminating them according to gender, race and disability Local prosperity includes maximizing the economic prosperity of the host destination including the proportion of the visitors’ spending which is retained locally (Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2010)

Social Aspect consists of the educational level of the population or workforce training

and all social institutions (such as culture, health, security, social order…) aiming at improving economic productivity Moreover, social capital also includes cultural capital, such as shared value, knowledge about history, sciences…) as well as institutional capital (human rights, democracy, social status, legal framework…) Social sustainability is concerned with the wellbeing of the destination and the economic benefits of the industry on destinations such as creating employment Achieving social sustainability is important to any tourist destination as it will ensure the wellbeing of the country can be maintained in the long term Social sustainability refers to the ability of

a host community to absorb tourists and function tourism activities without the creation

of social disharmony

Environmental aspect (somehow refers to as natural aspect) represents natural

resources (both renewable and non-renewable), including flora and fauna as well as

fossil resources (oil, coal, gas, uranium, etc.) These resources allow the biosphere to perpetuate itself They also provide the essential and necessary goods and services to life on Earth, whether directly or indirectly used in production or social development and quality of life (oxygen, water purification…), protection against degradation of ecosystems and even recreational services, including landscape beauty, etc With the continuous growth of the tourism industry and environmental unsustainability, the environment and resources cannot be preserved for future users Sustainable tourism should ensure the optimal use of environmental resources maintaining proper ecological phenomena through conserving natural resources and biodiversity The quality of the landscapes should be maintained properly by avoiding the physical and visual degradation of the environment Proper restoration of the historical buildings should be done National parks, botanical gardens, and marine parks should be built to protect biological diversity Sustainability should also focus on saving the non-renewable resources through producing alternative energy sources for example solar and wind Proper waste management is necessary to control pollution and avoid the degradation

of the environment (Caribbean Tourism Organization, 2010)

It is called sustainable development when the three pillars are achieved in a process However, the outcome is said to be ‘viable’, ‘bearable’, or ‘equitable’, depending on the combination where two of three pillars are achieved without the third (Thwink, 2016)

First, a site is viable when there is a balance between economic and environmental aspects This happens when a site has an efficient economy that protects the

environment, but may not look after its people well The achievement of this interaction can be seen through the establishment of energy efficiency, renewable fuels, green technology, high recycling, low waste and efficient resource use

Second, a site is equitable when there is a balance between economic and social aspects It is a condition in which a site has an efficient economy and offers an excellent

quality of life to its people, but it destroys the environment The outcomes of the interactions can be seen through the development of business ethics, fair trade, workers’ benefits, and investment in communities

Last, a site is bearable when there is a balance between social and environmental aspects It is a state in which a site protects both the environment and its people’s

welfare, but economic processes do not function well The outcome of these interactions include conservation, environmental justice, global stewardship, and effective natural disaster management

Globally, developments enhance gradual changes and adaptation in the economy and society A development path, that is appropriate to the sustainability approach could theoretically, be pursued even in a rigorous social and political framework But physical sustainability can only be guaranteed if development policies pay attention to considerations such as changes in access to resources and the distribution of costs and benefits Even the narrow concept of sustainable development presupposes a concern for social equity among generations, a concern that must logically be extended to equity within each generation

The principle of sustainable development can also be applied effectively in the tourism sector (Liu, 2003; Dwyer, 2004; Hunter, 2007; Kimura, 2011) The pace of continuous desirable growth is a significant challenge for the sustainable development of tourism The nations and communities that will welcome an increasing number of tourists, will have to be much better equipped than today to guarantee a satisfactory experience, without harming the natural environment and the local culture Tourism must be sustainable because activities that damage the environment or negatively impact societies destroy the very basis on which tourism is built and developed (Kester,1999; Chheang, 2009; Kimura, 2011)

2.3.3 The Importance of Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism

In 1972, the Club of Rome published “Limits to Growth”, a highly controversial report highlighting a certain relationship between population growth, industrialization, pollution and the depletion of natural resources Not surprisingly, the Limits to Growth report was controversial because it predicts consequences disastrous if economic growth

is not slowed down (Theys, 2001) The report gave birth to a political movement advocating zero or even negative growth At the same time, it was criticized for advocating the abandonment of economic development in favor of natural preservation

In the end, the report reinforced the idea that the environment and the economy are irreconcilable

One year later, Strong (Secretary-General of the Stockholm Conference in 1972)

launched the term “ecodevelopment !

” trying to reconcile the opposing views His final

3

The idea of ecodevelopment appears for the first time in the Fournex report, a preliminary report to the

Stockholm Conference (1972) It was repeated in the Stockholm Declaration as stated “Rejecting the reductive

approaches, represented by uncompromising ecologism and narrow economism, the Fournex Report established

a middle way, equidistant between the extreme propositions of the Malthusians and the singers of the unlimited abundance of Nature”

statement questions the “inner limits” of human needs and the “outer limits” of the

physical resources of the planet (Vivien, 2005)

However, it was in 1987 that the term “sustainable development” was introduced in

“Our Common Future”, a report published by the World Commission on Environment

and Development (WCED), also called the Brundtland Report4

(WCED, 1987)

According to this report, sustainable development is defined as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"

The Rio Earth Summit in 1992 saw the real media launch of the concept of sustainable development The summit produces the Rio Declaration5

on the different aspects of sustainable development; especially article 15 of the Declaration, which refers to something similar to the precautionary principle The essential idea of this principle is that in the event of a risk of serious or irreversible damage, the absence of absolute scientific certainty should not be used to postpone the adoption of effective measures to prevent the degradation of the environment (WCED, 1987) It lists more than a certain number of actions to be undertaken so that sustainable development becomes a reality

in the 21st century Ten years later, the 2002 Johannesburg Summit focused on fulfilling commitments made at the Rio Conference (Munitlak et al., 2011)

To be more simple, sustainable development is seen as integrating economic, environmental and social objectives into the decision-making process, and as a balance between the economy, society and the environment

2.4 Measures to Achieve Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism

2.4.1 The Importance of Cultural Heritage Tourism Management

CH sites are unique and vulnerable places that can easily get damaged They constitute valuable and irreplaceable assets; hence, good care needs to be taken to preserve their cultural significance Therefore, it is important to be aware of the kinds of risks that might threaten CH sites to identify the measures required for the protection and the appropriate future use of the sites The CH sites throughout the world are in constant danger from both natural and man-made threats Natural threats can range from natural

4

The report “Our Common Future”, says the Brundtland report, is the founding text of sustainable development

It was written in 1987 on the occasion of the World Commission on Environment and Development, chaired by Norway's Gro Harlem Brundtland for the United Nations

disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, typhoons, etc to humidity or dampenss

Some of the major human-induced threats listed in the Training Manual for Trainers published by the United Nations include:

Ignorance: Not knowing the CH sites or their values and ignorance about appropriate

protection measures can have a devastating impact on CH For example, many countries

do not carry out regular and systematic studies/surveys to identify and prepare inventories of heritage sites As a result, the public or even the site managers do not have any clear knowledge of their CH site

Neglect: is often tied to ignorance Neglect can slowly but irreversibly damage a site

For example, many CH sites in almost every country are not listed as protected sites Consequently, people or the government do not pay much attention to their protection Constant exposure to different kinds of threats and lack of care gradually damage the sites

Illegal trade: Illegal trade of heritage objects, such as paintings, statues or other

artifacts, is a significant problem causing loss of CH in some countries Archaeological sites are raided, temples are robbed and artifacts stolen and taken out of a country to feed the illegal trade of heritage objects

Theft: Thefts are often encouraged by illegal trade But theft can occur for other

economic reasons, such as the existence of an unregulated antique market

Fire: While ignorance and neglect inflict damage little by little, accidents, such as fire,

can cause significant damage to a site within a very short time Timber structures, archival and museum collections, etc., are highly vulnerable to fire dangers

Development work: Construction of a new road or bridge can have a number of negative

impacts on a site Some impacts are purely visual and aesthetic, such as blocking the view of a heritage building by a new construction But, in many cases, public works may lead to demolition of historic buildings or separation between various parts of a site

War: A war can bring anarchy to a country, both of them probably allowing damage to

heritage sites to happen Moreover, CH sites are very often intentionally targeted to demoralize opponents

In this regard, the need for proper management of the site is crucial A good site management system aims for prevention rather than cure Through constant and good monitoring, good management can identify and prevent threats and take timely corrective measures However, in most cases, simple common sense is sufficient to

identify the types of threat a site might face.

Given this need, managing CHT involves a number of different perspectives:

- community tourism planning

- heritage and cultural product development

of CHT as follows:

-Better planning and management: CHT strategies and plans should be linked with a

broader set of initiatives and community or economic development plans

- Coordination: There needs to be more coordination at both policy and action levels

among the various agencies and different levels of government involved in tourism development, especially environmental policies In addition, services such as transportation, parking, and water and sewer capacities can be considered in conjunction with tourism plans and development

- Cooperation: Cooperation among local sites, businesses, and tourism operators is

essential Models of CHT partnerships should be explored in planning, management, marketing, and funding Local financial institutions can work with local entrepreneurs

to provide start-up funds to businesses

-Impact assessment and monitoring: There is a definite need for impact assessment of

tourism development proposals The capacity of the sites should be considered, including physical, natural, social and cultural limits The scale and pace of CHT development should be compatible with local and environmental limits and include monitoring and evaluation of plans and operations The industry should begin assisting

the conservation community in developing a full range of practical indicators and monitoring techniques, as well as producing comparable data sets to be used in heritage development and planning exercises in other parts of the country

-Establishment of guidelines for tourism operation: Codes of practice should be

established for tourism at all levels – national, provincial and municipal Indicators must

be developed for measuring the impact and success of local tourism ventures Protection and monitoring strategies are essential if rural communities protect the very resources that form the basis of their tourism product

- Marketing and Promotion: More effective cultural tourism products are necessary

2.4.3 The Engagement of Stakeholders in Cultural Heritage Tourism

There are a lot of stakeholders involve in CHT including public sector, private sectors, local people, and tourists A stakeholder can be defined as any person, group, or institution that positively or negatively affects or is affected by a particular issue or outcome (World Wildlife Fund, 2000) Typically tourism destinations consist a number

of small businesses that compete with one another They sometimes compete to attract visitors and compete with other destinations as well However, the competitiveness can harm the site, especially cultural heritage and natural site if they don’t carefully manage the destination In this connection, the strategic management response by those small firms is to cooperate in some areas including destination planning and development (Weidenfeld, Butler, & Williams, 2011) Hence, in tourism destinations, firms both compete and co-operate at the same time and this could be known as coopetition strategy Stein (2010) and Walley (2007)

In fact, the key issue to consider here is why stakeholder collaboration is so important Heritage and tourism stakeholders usually share the responsibility to ensure the conservation of cultural and natural heritage, by presenting outstanding universal value and sustainable development based on proper tourism management Brenner and Cochran (2014) claim that a range of stakeholder groups plays a vital role in ensuring the sustainability of tourism in cultural heritage sites

Vijayanand (2013) stated that Public-Private Partnership (PPP) is a popular model for sustainable development in tourism PPP is a form of collaboration between public institutions and private sector representatives Normally, it could be an official or unofficial contractual conformity between the public body and a group of profit-oriented organizations The choice of the form or contract depends upon the goals, amount of investment, economic framework conditions and time frame of the project More and

more governments in the world are interested in involving the private sector in the process of country development They see the private sector as an additional alternative source of funding, an important source for joint public infrastructure development, a more efficient resource utilization platform, etc However, the balance of cost-benefit analysis on the service provision, social well-being and profit-oriented objective of the private sector must be seriously taken into account In some extent, it’s hard to reach an optimal point (Chao and Toro, 2017; Vijayanand, 2013)

PPP is important to ensure the sustainability of the tourism industry It allows all relevant stakeholders to actively participate in the development of tourism strategy, communicate and achieve their objectives and interests, and successfully implement tourism programs, all while collaborating to achieve a common goal It brings together stakeholders with different objectives, skills, and resources in a formal or informal voluntary partnership to improve the attractiveness of a regional destination, its productivity, associated market efficiency, and the overall management of tourism (UNWTO, 2015)

At last, the debate on the success of public-private partnership should not be limited to these two actors, but a broader look to more important actors to promote sustainable growth of the sector including governments, the tourism industry, visitors, and the local people The principles for understanding the cultural/heritage tourism are defined as (Xiang and Wall, 2005): (1) it is based on cultural or natural heritage resources; (2) it provides a special visitor experience particularly of the unique cultural, natural or historical attractiveness of a certain site; (3) it undertakes an educative role in cultivating awareness

of heritage conservation in both the visitors and the heritage managers and owners, including the local residents Also, it contributes financially to the conservation of heritage resources; and (4) it generates economic benefits for local communities and helps them sustain their life traditions and cultural identities which are an integral part of the heritage environment Thus, the collaboration between stakeholders shuld include another P or People

2.5 Conceptual Framework of the Study

According to various literature, the concept of sustainable development rely mainly on the balance of the three pillar: economical, social and environmental pillars/aspects In this sence, promoting sustainable cultural heritage requires a balance among resource conservation, tourism development and local community well-being (Bjeljac et al., 2013)

(Source: Xiang and Wall, 2005)

Figure 2.3: Sustainable Tourism Cycle

!However, these balances become a big challenge in the economically oriented world (Bjeljac et al., 2013) It is believed that heritage tourism is often used as a strategy to assist heritage resource conservation and to improve sustainable local development Still, in practice it is rarely properly applied This is especially obvious in underdeveloped countries (du Cros, 2001; McKercher, Ho and du Cros, 2005) The Berlin Declaration (1997) made

a strong normative point by suggesting that tourism should be developed in a way so that it benefits the local communities, strengthens the local economy, employs the local workforce, and wherever ecologically sustainable, uses local materials, local agricultural products and traditional skills Thus, opinions and attitudes of residents on certain parts of cultural heritage in their environment are very important since they create local perspective for evaluating possibilities to involve geographically limited territory into broader social, cultural and tourism flows It is believed that if heritage is respected, used and managed by locals, it has better chances to be restored and protected The sustainability of tourism is also highly influenced by the role of local communities, as the information, services, interpretation, safety, visual effects of the local environment, poverty indicators and overall attitudes of residents towards tourists have a great impact on visitor experiences Moreover, suppose during the development of tourism, sustainability aspects concerning resident community well-being are ignored In that case, there is a great chance that other aspects of the development process will be questionable

Thus, to explore the perceptions of related stakeholders concerning the importance of SCHT, and measures in managing SCHT in the context of Cambodia at the three cases studies sites: Angkor, PVH and SPK, the researcher adapted the three pillars of the sustainability model as a base for data analysis Also, to achieve the sustainability of cultural heritage tourism, the collaboration between the public sector, private sector, and local people is considered significant Thus, their understanding and involvement in promoting sustainable cultural heritage tourism are collected through in-depth interviews or focus groups Besides, the site’s management through careful planning,

organizing, and monitoring is considered another important measure to achieve

sustainable cultural heritage tourism of the site

Sustainable Cultural Heritage Tourism

Stakeholders Collaboration: 4Ps Model

Management of the site:

Planning, organizing and monitoring

The Balance of the Three Pillars

Measures to Achieve SCHT Figure 2.4 The Conceptual Framework of the Study

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Chapter Overview

Thus, this chapter presents the research methodology used in this study Initially, it describes the research design, and research methods employed for this research It also provides a detailed account of the specific research methods adopted such as sampling and its recruitment procedures; data collection tools including semi-structured interviews, focus groups, observation, and documentation; and data analysis techniques Then, it discusses the strategies used to ensure the trustworthiness of the research and ethical considerations

3.2 Research Design

The research design determines the methods used to undertake the inquiry within

“specific methodological practices” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008, p 34) Thus, the choice

of research design is very important as it can entirely affect research findings

Figure 3.1 Research Design

This study lied solely on a qualitative approach in the forms of multiple case studies to

to seeking in-depth understanding of the perceptions of sustainable cultural heritage

Qualitative

Semi-structured Interviews Focus Group Interviews Observation

Documentation SPK

Data Analysis

Triangulation Coding

Result

tourism management from tourism-related stakeholders at the three selected sites: Angkor, PHV, SPK To collect data for these three case studies, four data collection tools such as focus groups, semi-structured interviews, observation and documentation were used Next, all collected data were analysed through coding and triangulation to before having the result of the findings (Figure 3.1)

3.2.1 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research allows researchers to gain a rich and complex understanding of a particular phenomenon in their natural settings It attempts to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of meanings people bring to them Denzin and Lincoln (2008) In other words, the role of the qualitative researcher is to approach the fieldwork with an open mind to listen (Yin, 2009) and to observe and then interpret those events within the line of the inquiry (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008) In this sense, the purpose of qualitative research is to achieve an understanding of how people make sense of their lives, explain the process of how meaning is being made, and describe how people interpret what they experience (Merriam, 2002) through multiple sources of evidence including interviews, focus groups and observation (Yin, 2009; Patton, 2002) to gain a contextualized understanding of the matter Moreover, qualitative research is a means for exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem, and studies people’s experiences in their natural settings to interpret phenomena in relation to the meaning participants attribute to them For these reasons, the qualitative approach is a very suitable method for this study

3.2.2 Case Study

Case study design is one of the typical inquiry strategies under the qualitative research framework because it can be conducted by a single researcher who is integrally involved

in the cases The strength of the case study is the focus on reality and action: they begin

in a world of action and contribute to it (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2000) Insights from the case study may be directly interpreted and put to use Merriam (1998) defines

a case study as:

…an examination of a specific phenomenon such as a program, an event, a person, a process, an institution or a social group The bounded system or case might be selected because it is an instance of some concern, issue, or hypothesis (pp 9-10)

Similarly, Stake (2010) viewed a case study as a “specific, unique, and bounded system” (p 436), in which the unanticipated variables were treated as unique features worth