Tài liệu VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR BOOK potx

A word or group of words that describe or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a whole sentence, such as “slowly” in “he ran slowly”, “very” in “It’s very hot”,

FISHERIES UNIVERSITY NHA TRANG, VIETAM

ENGLISH FOR AQUACULTURE

VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR BOOK

BY MANON FRENETTE

WUSC (World University Service of Canada)

TABLE OF CONTENT

UNIT ONE……….……… ……… Word Formation UNIT ONE.…… ……… … ………Verb Tense Review –Active and Passive Voice UNIT TWO……… … ……… Sentence Structure –Complex Sentences UNIT TWO…… ……… ……… Sentence Structure –Reduced Clauses UNIT THREE….……….……… …Sentence structure –Signal Words UNIT FOUR….……… …Writing and Verbalizing Numbers UNIT FOUR……….……… …………Describing trends in the Market UNIT FIVE……… ……….List of clinical signs

APPENDICES

APPENDIX ONE…….… ……….………Academic and Aquaculture Glossary APPENDIX TWO………… ……… ……… Acronyms and Abbreviations APPENDIX THREE……….……… ……… … Complementary Materials APPENDIX FOUR…….…….……… ………… Academic Word List

UNIT ONE: WORD FORMATION

One way to improve your reading comprehension, pronunciation and spelling is to increase your understanding of common word parts These word parts –also known as prefixes, suffixes and roots- are building blocks used in forming many English words

RECOGNIZING SUFFIXES, THEIR PARTS OF SPEECH AND MEANINGS

What is a noun? A word or group of words that represent a person (Professor Dung), a

place(Halong Bay), a thing or activity (a net or fishing) or a quality or idea (danger or over-fishing)

Noun-forming suffixes:

-ence quality existence, subsistence

-er,-or a person who, a thing which factor, farmer

-ist, -yst a person who, pertaining to aquaculturist

-ian pertaining to/related to reptilian

-tion, -ation the act of, condition of pollution, propagation, importation

-ment state, action impoundment, environment

-ity state, quality opportunity, quality, security

-dom domain/condition freedom

-ship condition/state relationship

Note: Nouns that do not use suffixes can often be used both as nouns and adjectives…

What is an adjective? A word that describes a noun or pronoun as in ‘ In English, adjectives are

placed in front of nouns (rare species) OR after the verb “to be”(This species is rare) Adjectives do

not take the plural form, no –s

Adjective-forming suffixes:

-ar having the quality of particular

-able/-ible capable of being sustainable, edible

-ous like, full of various, tremendous

-ful characterized by neglectful

Note: Word ending in –ing are formed from verbs (present participle = V-ing) The –ing form may

be used as a noun, adjective, part of a noun phrase, or part of a verb

What is a verb? A word or group of words that is used to describe an action, experience, or state for

example “come”, “see”, “be”, “put on”

Note: The easiest way to recognize a verb is to know how verbs are formed We will take a closer

look at this a little later in the course To quickly review verb forms look at p

What is an adverb? A word or group of words that describe or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb or a whole sentence, such as “slowly” in “he ran slowly”, “very” in “It’s

very hot”, or “naturally” in “Naturally, we want you to come”

Most often adverbs finish in –ly: widely, relatively, frequently, sufficiently, economically, commercially Here is also a list of common adverbs that do not finish in –ly : always, often, sometimes, never, very, well…

RECOGNIZING PREFIXES AND THEIR MEANINGS

Trans across, over, beyond transgenic

Inter between, among interbreeding

Post after, following post-larvae

Pro before (time, place, order) problem

in front of, instead of protect

In (im, ir, il*) not, without, lacking insufficient (not)

In, on, into, towards, within infer (within)

Com with, together with comply

Patho disease pathogen

* im - before b, m, p, ir- before r, il- before –l

ROOTS

A root is a basic word to which prefixes, suffixes, or both are added For example, to the root word

port (meaning carry), the prefix –trans (meaning across) could be added: the resulting word, transport, means to carry across Various suffixes could also be added, among them the verb or

adjective suffix –ed (transported), -able (transportable), and the noun suffix ation(transportation)

Cept (capt) take, seize accept

Dict (dic) say, tell, speak indicate

Cess (ced) go, move, yield precede

Pend (pens) hang, weigh depend

replacement subdivision conducive interpretation

UNIT ONE: REVIEW OF TENSES

Active and passive voice in Academic writing

Active and passive voice in Academic writing

Academic writing is still English But there are a few differences One of those differences is the frequency of the use of the passive voice Academic writing differs because often the doer of the action, the subject, is not important or not what the writer wants to emphasize Therefore, the active voice needs to be used The active voice is still used most of the time, but the passive voice is more common than in other forms of writing

Let us look at subjects A subject is important for two reasons: First, it is placed at the beginning of a sentence or clause so the reader pays attention to it Second, a subject, in the active voice, indicates

who or what is doing the action In the following example, it is the fact that Mary is the person

doing the study that is important, what she actually studies is less important to the reader

Mary Stein (subject) studies the relationship between weather patterns and water quality (object)

But what can be done if it is “the relationship between weather patterns and water quality”, in other words, the object, that needs to be emphasized? That is when the passive voice is used Compare the difference in meaning between the first example with the following one :

Active : Mary Stein is researching the relationship between weather patterns and water quality Passive : The relationship between weather patterns and water quality is being researched (by

HOW TO CHANGE VOICE:

1 IDENTIFY THE SUBJECT, OBJECT, AND VERB FORM: To change a sentence from the active voice to the passive voice, you need to have a subject, a verb and a direct object If you do not have a direct object, you cannot transform the sentence into the passive voice If you have two objects, you select only one

2 INVERSE THE ORDER OF THE SUBJECT AND OBJECT

3 CHANGE THE VERB FORM:

I ACTIVE VOICE Subject (doer) + Verb + Object

PASSIVE VOICE Object+ “Be”+ Past Part.+ Subject

The fish + is fed (by the farmer)every day

A good way to recognize if a sentence is in the active or passive voice is to look at the form of the verb The passive is always formed by the auxiliary BE which is conjugated and the past participle form of the verb (–ed for reg v 3rd column for irr v.)whereas the active voice is formed as follows:

1 Simple tenses (simple present, past, and future)

1 Used for permanent situations, facts, repeated actions

2 Subject + Auxiliary do-does/did/will* + base form of the verb

*Except for the affirmative voice of the simple present and simple past (subject + verb)

2 Progressive tenses (present, past and future progressive/continuous)

1 Used for temporary situations

2 Subject +Auxiliary be (was-were/is-are/will be) +present participle (-ing form)

3 Perfect tenses (present, past and future perfect)

1 Used for actions that are indefinite or last a period of time

2 Subject + Auxiliary have (had/have-has/will have)) + past part (-ed for reg v or 3 rd

column of irr.v.)

4 Perfect progressive tenses (present, past and future perfect progressive)

Have (in the present, past, or future) + been + present participle (–ing form)

SIMPLE

PRESENT

S V O The researchers observe the feeding patterns of the carp

The feeding patterns of the carp are observed (by the researchers)

SIMPLE PAST The researchers observed the

feeding patterns of the carp

The feeding patterns of the carp were observed by the researchers

SIMPLE FUTURE The researchers will observe the

feeding patterns of the carp

The feeding patterns of the carp will be observed by the researchers

PRESENT

CONTINUOUS

The researchers are observing the

feeding patterns of the carp

The feeding patterns of the carp are being observed by the researchers

PAST

CONTINUOUS

The researchers were observing

the feeding patterns of the carp

The feeding patterns of the carp were being observed by the researchers

FUTURE

CONTINUOUS

The researchers will be observing

the feeding patterns of the carp IMPOSSIBLE PRESENT

PERFECT

The researchers have observed the

feeding patterns of the carp

The feeding patterns of the carp have been observed by the researchers

PAST PERFECT The researchers had observed the

feeding patterns of the carp

The feeding patterns of the carp had been observed by the researchers

FUTURE

PERFECT

The researchers will have observed

the feeding patterns of the carp

The feeding patterns of the carp will have been observed by the researchers

UNIT TWO: SENTENCE STRUCTURE

SENTENCES AND CLAUSES Sentences are made up of clauses There are two kinds of sentences: simple and complex sentences Simple sentences are made up of independent clauses A complex sentences has both independent clauses and dependent clauses

1 An independent clause expresses a complete thought as can be a sentence by itself, for example: Fish have gills

2 A dependent clause begins with a subordinator and cannot be a sentence by itself There are three kinds of dependent clauses: adverb, adjective or noun

a Adverb: …because fish have gills…

b Adjective: …which is in aquaculture…

c Noun: …that aquaculture is growing…

These clauses combine together to form sentences There are four possible kinds of sentences:

1 A simple sentence has one independent clause: Fish have gills

2 A simple compound sentence has two independent clauses joined by a coordinator or

coordinate connector (see list below): Fish have gills so they can breathe under water

COORDINATE CONNECTORS

and but/yet or nor so

S V A O S V O

Vietnam is now the third largest rice exporting country in the world yet farmers are still poor

3 A complex sentence has one independent clause and one (or more) dependent clauses The

dependent clause begins with a subordinator or subordinate coordinators The punctuation depends

on the kind of dependent clause(s):

a With an adverb clause: Because fish have gills, they can breathe under water OR Fish can breathe under water because they have gills

b With an adjective clause: One of my favorite foods is clams which are shellfish

c With a noun clause: The children didn’t know that fish have gills

4 A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses and one (or more) dependent

clauses: Because fish have gills they can breathe under water but they cannot breathe when they are out of the water

COMPLEX SENTENCES: ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that begins with a adverbial subordinator It is used to modify the verb of the independent clause and tells when (time), where (place), why (reason), and for what purpose, how, how long, or how far It is also used to show contrast: concession (unexpected result) and direct opposition

S V A O S V

Vietnam is the 3rd largest rice exporting country because the green revolution has taken off

S V S V O A

Because the green revolution has taken off, Vietnam is the third largest rice exporting country in the world

Note: In the first example, the connector because comes in the middle of the sentence, and no comma (,) is used In the

second example, the connector because comes at the beginning of the sentence In this pattern when the connector

comes at the beginning of the sentence, a comma (,) is required in the middle of the sentence

The following chart lists adverb connectors of contrast, condition, manner, and place and the sentence patterns used with them

From that time/moment While/when

Earlier than the time when

Up to the time of Place Where

Anywhere, wherever

Everywhere

A definite place Anyplace Everyplace Distance/

With the result that

Purpose So that, in order that

For the purpose of Concession Although, though

Contrast While

COMPLEX SENTENCES: NOUN CLAUSES

A noun clause functions as a noun:

OBJECT: The researchers know when the fish will spawn

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION: The researchers are concerned about what is done with fish waste

SUBJECT: Conflicts arise with the fishermen who disagree with the removal of early stages

SUBORDINATORS: NOUN CLAUSE CONNNECTORS

What, when, where, why, how whatever, whenever whether, if, that

In the example above, we saw that noun clause connectors were used to introduce noun subject

clauses or noun object clauses Here below, we will see that in some cases a noun clause connector

is not just a connector; a noun clause connector can also be the suject of the clause at the same

time

SUBORDINATORS: NOUN CLAUSE CONNNECTOR/SUBJECTS

Who what which

whoever whatever whichever NOUN CLAUSE AS OBJECT

S V noun conn./subject V

I know what happened

NOUN CLAUSE AS SUBJECT

Noun conn./subject V V

What happened was great

COMPLEX SENTENCES: ADJECTIVE CLAUSES (also called relative clauses)

An adjective clause is a clause that describes a noun Because the clause is an adjective, it is

positioned directly after the noun that it describes

SUBORDINATORS: ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTORS

Whom

(for people)

Which (for things)

That (for people or things)

S V Adjective connector S V

S Adjective connector S V V

Note: The adjective connectors can be omitted This omission is very common in spoken

English or in casual written English It is not as common in formal English

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTORS/SUBJECTS

Who

(for people)

Which (for things)

That (for people or things)

S V Adjective connector/Subject V

S Adjective connector/Subject V V

Note: The adjective connectors can be omitted This omission is very common in spoken

UNIT TWO: REDUCED CLAUSES

It is possible in English to have complete or reduced adjective and adverb clauses The following charts list the structure for reduced adjective and adverb clauses and rules for how and when reduced forms can be used

The scientist should finish the study (which is) being conducted at the laboratory C

Although (it was) not certain, the results seemed to confirm the hypothesis

REDUCED ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

With a be-verb in the adjective

clause

(adjective connector/subject) + (be) With no be-verb in the adjective

clause

(adjective connector/subject) + (be)

To reduce an adjective clause, omit the adjective clause connector/subject and the verb

be-
If there is no be-verb, omit the connector/subject and change the main verb to the –ing form

Only reduce an adjective clause if the connector/subject is directly followed by the verb

If an adjective clause is set off with commas, the reduced clause can be moved to the front of the sentence

REDUCED ADVERB CLAUSES

If unless whether

Although Though

Reduces in

PASSIVE

Once while when whenever

If unless whether

Although Though

where wherever

UNIT THREE UNIT THREE: SIGNAL WORDS : SIGNAL WORDS : SIGNAL WORDS Signal words help you, the reader, follow the direction of a writer’s thought They are like signposts on the road that guide the traveler Common signal words show emphasis, addition, comparison, or contrast, illustration, and cause and effect

EMPHASIS WORDS

Among the most valuable signals for you to know are emphasis words, through which the writer tells you directly that a particular idea or detail is especially important Think of such words as red flags that the author is using to make sure you pay attention to an idea Look over the following listl, which contains some typical words showing emphasis

a major event the chief outcome pay particular attention to the principal item

the chief factor

a vital force above all

a central issue

a distinctive quality should be noted especially relevant Circle the one emphasis in each of these selections

1 Although the resources of the world are limited, the wants of people are not Indeed, one of the most importnant assumptions of economics is that total human wants can never be satisfied No matter how much we have, we seem to want more As people’s income increase, so does their desire for more and better goods and services

2 In practice, a deficiency of just one nutrient, such as protein, is not generally seen More likely, a combination of protein and calorie malnutrition will occur Protein and calorie deficiency

go hand in hand so often that public health officials have given a name to the whole spectrum of diesease conditions that range between the two –protein-calorie malnutrition (PCM) This is the world’s most widespread malnutrition problem, killing millions of children every year

3 Chronic air pollution is expensive, costing dearly in terms of both money and health Air pollution causes buildings and machines to deteriorate Our poisioned air damages crops, livestock, roads And metals and forces huge cleaning bills for everything from dusty draperies to soot-blackened buildings It is especially in terms of health, however, that pollution hurts It is estimated that breathing the air of New York city is the equivalent of smoking two packs of cigarettes a day

ADDITION WORDS

Addition words tell you that the writer’s thought is going to continue in the same direction He or

she is going to add on more points or details of the same kind Addition words are typically used to signal enumerations

in addition

last of all likewise moreover next

and second the third reason

Read the selections that follow Circle five major addition words in the passage

1 Here are ways to take some of the danger out of smoking First of all, choose a cigarette with less tar and nicotine The difference in brands (including those with filters) can be as much as two to one, even more See how much you can reduce your tar and nicotine by switching Also, don’t smoke your cigarette all the way down You get the most tar and nicotine from the last few puffs because the tobacco itself acts as a filter Smoke halfway and you get only about 40% of the total tar and nicotine The last half of the cigarette will give you 60% Another help is to take fewer draws on each cigarette Just reduce the number of time you puff on each cigarette and you’ll cut down on your smoking without really missing it In addition, you should reduce your inhaling Remember, you’re not standing on a mountain of fresh air, so don’t welcome it with open lungs Don’t inhals as deeply; take short shallow drags Finally, you should smoke fewer cigarettes each day For some people this is easy, but for others it may be the most difficult step of all Don’t think

of it as cutting down; think of it as posponing It’s always easier to postpone a cigarette if you know you’ll be having one later Carry your cigarette if you know you’ll be having one later At work, keep your cigarettes in a desk drawer –any place where you can’t reach for one automatically The trick is to change your habit patterns What other bad habits do you want to quit and what can you

do about it? How about the habits of the aquaculture farmers?

COMPARISON OR CONTRAST WORDS

Comparison words signal that the author is pointing out a similarity between subjects They tell you

that the second idea is like the first one in come way

as

Contrast words signal a change in the direction of the writer’s thought They tell you that the author

is pointing out a difference between two subjects or statements

variation still

on the contrary nonetheless

on the other hand conversely otherwise nevertheless

Circle the one comparision and the one contrast signal in each passage Then discuss the content

and try to incorporate some othe

1 Sleep has always been a fascinating topic We spend about one-third of our adult life sleeping Most animals sleep in a similar fashion –they collapse and relax their muscles In contrast, birds and horses sleep upright, with their antigravity muscles at work How about aquatic animals?

2 The steadyly increasing flow of women into the labor force is caused by a number of economic factors And just as these economic factors are occuring, attitudes are changing as well Many women no longer feel that being a full-time homemaker is providing them with an adequate sense of self-fulfillment and self-worth Still, many career ladders have remained frustratingly difficult for women to climb What is the case of the women who surround you?

ILLUSTRATION WORDS

Illustration words tell you that an example or illustration will be given to make an idea clear Such

words are typically used in textbooks that present a number of definitions and examples of those definitions

for example

to illustrate

Specifically Once

for instance such as

1 Not all problems can be solved with straightwforward strategies but rely more on the use of

flexible and original thinking Psychologists sometimes refer to this type of thinking as divergent thinking in contrast to convergent thinking A problem such as a math problem requires convergent

thinking –it has only one solution or very few solutions Problems that have no single correct solution and require a flexible, inventive approach call for divergent thinking Can you think of

examples of problems that we face in aquaculture that require either convergent or divergent

thinking?

Since

as a result if…then result in Circle one instance of a cause-an-effect word or words in the following passages

1 Thirty years ago, miners accepted cancer of the lung as part of life They knew that longtime workers got short of breath and caughed up blood, and they wrote folk songs about brown lung disease But as a result of a new awareness about occupational diseases and a social movement against coal dust, an accepted fact of life was transformed into an unacceptable illness How about other instances of occupational illnesses are there? Is there anything being done to prevent these illnesses? Is there anything to do about it?

Below are some of the signal words that are most often used by writers Place each word under its proper heading

such as similarly especially valuable

U UNIT THREE: NIT THREE: NIT THREE: NUMBERS NUMBERS NUMBERS

Numbers and the language describing numbers are very important to understand when you read research articles, books or reports or when you discuss with colleagues The language of numbers and the language describing numbers must be understood clearly, if not, mistakes in misunderstanding can cause serious mistakes

NUMERALS

1 Cardinal Numbers

a 0 zero (especially in mathematics and for temperature), ‘oh’ (in telephone

numbers), nil (in sports)

b 100 1,000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000 a/one hundred, thousand, million, billion

c 101 1,001 etc a/one hundred and one, a/one thousand and one

d 201 2,001 etc two hundred and one, two thousand and one

2 Ordinal Numbers

a 1st first; ‘The first of April” (spoken)

b 2nd second; ‘The second species we will look at’

c 3rd third; ‘Our third experiment was successful’

d 4th fourth; “he is the fourth specialist we saw”

e 21st twenty-first; ‘These products will take us to the twenty-first

f 100th (one) hundredth; ‘Our one hundredth new customer’

g 101st (one) hundred and first

h 1,000th (one) thousandth

i 1,000,000 (one) millionth

3 Fractions and Decimals

a ½ (a) half; ‘over half of our exports go to the USA’

b 1/3 one-third; ‘One-third of the fry was loss’

c 2/3 two-thirds; ‘We can usually sell two-thirds of the harvest quickly’

d ¼ (a) quarter; ‘The earliest starting time is (a) quarter past seven’

e ¾ three-quarters; ‘It takes me three-quarters of an hour to prepare’

g 1 ½ one and a half; ‘The whole process takes one and a half hours’

i 3.75 three point seven five (not: seventy-five)

j 26.012 twenty-six point zero (or ‘oh’) one two

4 Frequency expressions

once twice three times …

5 Dimensions and specifications: Below are some expressions in both the written and spoken forms

i 1,000 cm3 a/one thousand cubic centimetres

UNIT THREE: DESCRIBING TRENDS

1 Form

Trends are changes or movements These changes are normally in numerical items, e.g costs, production volumes… There are three basic trends: going up ↑, going down ↓, remaining stable

→ A fourth trend, fluctuating, is when the movement changes all the time

For each trend there are a number of verbs and nouns to express the movement We can divide the verbs into transitive and intransitive After a transitive verb we must put an object:

We have raised our prices because of inflation

After an intransitive verb we cannot put a direct object

Our prices have risen because of inflation

a ↑

VERBS

Transitive Intransitive

NOUNS Increase Increase

b ↓

VERBS

Transitive Intransitive

NOUNS Decrease Decrease

c →

VERBS

Transitive Intransitive

NOUNS

Keep/hold…stable/constant Remain stable

Maintain…(at the same level) Stay constant

In the sixth year, sales reached a peak of 24,000 units

Trends are changes Sometimes we need to give more information about the change, as follows1: Degree of change: The cost of shrimps has fallen… dramatically / vastly / hugely / enormously / substantially / considerably / significantly / moderately / slightly / a little

The cost of shrimps has known a dramatic/ huge/ enormous/ substantial/ considerable/ significant/ moderate/ slight fall

The speed of change: There has been a sharp/rapid /quick / swift / gradual / continuous/ steady/ slow increase in our expenses

Our expenses have sharply/ rapidly/ quickly/ swiftly/ gradually/ continuously/ steadily/

slowly increased

Finally, we can also qualify not only the change but also the information about the change, for

example: Farmers have had a considerably/fairly/relatively/rather slow year

1

* Remember that we modify a noun with an adjective (a dramatic rise); and a verb with an adverb (to rise

dramatically)

Use the “reference structures” below to help you write reports about tables and graphs

table/chart/diagram/graph shows (that) figures/statistics show (that) The

illustrates

how…

According to the

As (is) shown in the

As can be seen from

UNIT FOUR: LIST OF CLINICAL SIGNS

1) Skin or fins(white, red, dark, other):

a) Ulcers: A sore (painful) area on your skin or inside your body that may bleed or produce poisonous (toxic) substances: stomach ulcers

b) Spots: A usually round area on the skin, that is a different color or is rougher (not nice to touch) or smoother (soft to the touch) than the rest

c) Blotches: A pink or red mark on the skin or a colored mark

2) Frayed fin or tail: Damage to the fin or tail; the fin or tail is decomposing and looks like a old cloth.

3) Eyes:

a) Milky color: With a white or graying film/coat on the eye

b) Exophtalmus: protruding –coming out of the orbit (round part of the eye)

c) Sunken: inside the orbit

d) Loss: No more eye

4) Belly:

a) Distended: A swollen abdomen, bigger than normal, because of pressure inside

b) Lumen with fluids (?)

7) Swimming behavior:

a) Activity alternated with lethargy: Moves and then stops moving

b) Restless: Cannot stop moving and spends a lot of energy

c) Sluggish/ lethargic: Slow and has no energy

d) Loss of balance: Falls to one side or another

8)Unusual swimming motion:

a) Swaying: To move slowly from one side to the other

b) Rotating: To turn in circles (?)

c) Jerky: To move in a rough manner with many stops and starts

d) Tumbling: To fall suddenly downwards, especially with a rolling movement

e) Head pointing up or down

f) Scraping on objects: To rub (touch) against something in a way that causes slight (small) damage or injury.

9)Other behavior:

a) Loss of appetite: Does not eat as much as usual

b) Operculum spread: The operculum, inside the gill, does not close

c) Unusual ventilation: Does not breathe normally

d) Gasping at surface: To breathe with difficulty and quickly at the surface

e) Fish near bottom or surface

f) Inlet/outlet: Fish gather/stay/accumulate around the inlet –where the water comes in because they lack oxygen; Fish gather near the outlet-where the water comes out because they are too weak and the current takes them towards the outlet.

APPENDIX 1: ACADEMIC AND AQUACULTURE GLOSSARY

A

1 ab/normal: adj different from what is usual or average, especially in a way that is

bad: abnormal behavior/weather/conditions

o abnormality: something abnormal, usually in the body: genetic/congenital

abnormalities

o abnormally: adv

o normal: antonym

2 account for sth (BE) phrasal v, to form the total of something: Students account for

the vast majority of our customers

3 accumulate: v [T] to gradually increase in numbers over time

o accumulation n[C or U] Accumulations of sand are formed by waves on

coastal beaches

4 adapt v [T] to change something to suit different conditions or uses: Many software

companies have adapted popular programs to the new operating system

[+ to infinitive] We had to adapt our plans to fit Jack's timetable

o adapted adj, We are now well adapted to London's wet climate and dirty air

o adaptable adj, able or willing to change in order to suit different conditions

o adaptability n [U],

o adaptation n[C or U]

o adaptive adj possessing an ability to change to suit different conditions

5. adequate adj, enough or satisfactory for a particular purpose: I didn't have adequate

time to prepare; [+ to infinitive] Will future oil supplies be adequate to meet world

needs?

o in/adequate antonym, not adequate

o adequately adv

o adequacy n[U]

6. adult: n [C] see mature

7 adverse adj [before noun] having a negative or harmful effect on something: The

match has been cancelled due to adverse weather conditions

o adversely adv He was adversely affected by the drug

8. affect v [T] to have an influence on someone or something, or to cause them to

change: The children were affected by the fire; This disease affects older people

9 area: n [C] a particular part of a place, piece of land or country: this is a poor area

10 algae: pl n very simple, usually small plants that grow in or near water and do not have ordinary leaves or roots

11 alternative n [C] something that is different from something else, especially from

what is usual, and offering the possibility of choice: You have two alternatives, east or

west

o alternatively adv, we could try Indian food, or alternatively, we could try

Italian

12. ammonia n [U] a gas with a strong unpleasant smell used in making fertilizers (to help

plants grow) and some cleaning products: ammonium chloride; ammonium nitrate

13. analyze v [T] to study or examine something in detail, in order to discover more about it: Water samples taken from rivers were analyzed for contamination by chemicals

o analysis n, plural analyses, chemical analysis revealed a high content of

copper

14. anemia n[U]a medical condition in which there are not enough red blood cells in the blood:The main symptoms of anemia are tiredness and pallor.

o anemic adj suffering from anemia: A lack of iron in your diet can make you

anemic

15 anomaly n[C or U] a person or thing that is different from what is usual and therefore not satisfactory: there is an anomaly on your X-ray

16 annual adj that happens every year

17 anti/biotic n [C or U] a medicine or chemical that can destroy harmful bacteria in the

body or limit their growth: The veterinary prescribed antibiotics for a gill infection

18 appropriate adj, suitable or right for a particular situation or occasion: Is this film

appropriate for small children?

o in/appropriate antonym, not appropriate

o appropriately adv, She didn't think we were appropriately dressed for a

20 assess v[T] to judge or decide the amount, value, quality or importance of something:

They assessed the cost at $1, 500 USD It's too early to assess the result of the study

o assessment n[C or U] their assessments of production costs were wrong

21. assume v [T] to accept something to be true without question or proof: [+ (that)] I assumed (that) you knew each other because you went to the same

school

o assumption n [C] something that you accept as true without question or proof:

My calculations are based on the assumption that prices will continue to rise

22 attain v [T] to reach or succeed in getting something; to achieve: We need to identify

the best ways of attaining our objectives India attained independence in 1947

o attainable adj possible to achieve

o attainment n [U] when you achieve something: the attainment of a goal

23 authority [C] a group of people with official responsibility for a particular area of

activity: the health authority

24. available adj, able to be obtained, used, or reached: Is this dress available in a larger

size? [+ to infinitive] I'm afraid I'm not available to help with the show on the 19th

o availability n [U]

B

25 bacterium n[C usually plural] plural bacteria, a type of very small organism that lives

in air, earth, water, plants and animals, often one which causes a disease:

an illness caused by bacteria in drinking water

26 benefit: n [C or U] a helpful or good effect, or something intended to help: The

discovery of oil brought many benefits to the town I didn't get/derive (much) benefit from school

o benefit v [I or T] -t- to be helped by something or to help someone:

I feel that I have benefited greatly from her wisdom

o beneficial adj, The improvement in sales figures had a beneficial

effect/influence on the company as a whole

27 brackish adj, water with a salinity (salt content) between 0.4 ppt and 28 ppt

28 breed: v (bred, bred) [I or T] to keep animals in order to produce young animals in a

controlled way, or (of animals) to have sex and reproduce: Roosters (male chickens)

are bred for their fighting instincts

o breed: n [C],a particular type of animal or plant

o breeder: n [C, someone who breeds animals

o breeding: adj [U]

29 bulk n [C usually singular] something or someone that is very large: It was a

document of surprising bulk

C

30 cage n[C] a space surrounded on all sides by bars or wire, in which animals or birds are kept: cagev[T usually passive]caged birds/animals

31 capacity n[C or S or U] the total amount that can be contained or produced; the

ability to do a particular thing: The generators each have a capacity of 1000 kilowatts

He suffered a stroke in 1988, which left him unable to speak, but his mental capacity

(= his ability to think and remember) wasn't affected

32 captivity n [U] when a person or animal is kept somewhere and is not allowed to

leave: Animals bred in captivity would probably not survive if they were released into

the wild

o captive n [C] we found soldiers who had been captives for several years

33. captured fisheries fish that are caught in the wild; opposite of farmed fish

34. carnivore n [C] an animal that eats meat: Lions and tigers are carnivores

o carnivorous adj

35 carp: n [C or U] plural carp, a large fish which lives in lakes and rivers: _

36 category n[C] (in a system for dividing things according to appearance, quality, etc.) a type, or a group of things having some features that are the same

o categorize v[T] to put people or things into groups with the same features:

The books are categorized into beginner and advanced

o categorization n [U]

37 catfish: n [C], a scaleless fish with a flat head and long hairs around its mouth, which lives in rivers or lakes: _

38 chemical: n[C], any basic substance which is used in or produced by a reaction

involving changes to atoms or molecules: Each year, factories release millions of tons

of toxic (= poisonous) chemicals into the atmosphere

o chemical: adj

o chemically: adv

o chemistry: n [U] the study of chemicals

39. circumstance n, [C usually plural] a fact or event that makes a situation the way it is:

Obviously we can't deal with the problem until we know all the circumstances

The meeting has been cancelled due to circumstances beyond our control

40. clam: n [C], a type of sea shell in two parts that can close together tightly, and a soft

body which can be eaten:

41 commerce: noun [U], the activities involved in buying and selling things

42. commission group n [C] a group of people who have been formally chosen to discover

information about a problem or examine the reasons why the problem exists:

The government has set up/established a commission to study the effects of alcohol

43 community group noun [C] a group of living things (people, plants, animals) in one particular area or are considered as a unit because they have common points:

There's a large black/white/Jewish community living in this area

44. complex adj 1) involving a lot of different but related parts: a complex

molecule/carbohydrate 2) difficult to understand or find an answer to because of

having many different parts: It's a very complex problem to which there is no easy

solution

o complexity n[C or U]

45 compound n [C] a chemical that combines two or more elements: Salt is a compound

of sodium and chlorine Many fertilizers contain nitrogen compounds

o compound v [T] to mix two things together

46 comprise v [T; L only + noun; not continuous] to have as parts or members, or to be

those parts or members: The course comprises a class book, a practice book and an

audio tape; The class is comprised mainly of Italian and French students Italian students comprise 60% of the class

47. concept: n [C] a principle or idea: It is very difficult to define the concept of beauty not have any concept/have no concept of sth to not understand about

something: I don't think you have any concept of the pain you have caused her

o conceptual adj based on ideas or principles

48 concern v [T] to be important to someone or to involve someone directly:

Matters of pollution and the environment concern us all

o concern n [C or U] something that involves or affects or is important to you

o be of concern: to be important: The results of the test are of concern to him

o concerned adj [after verb] involved in something or affected by it

o be concerned with sth/sb to be about a particular thing or person

o concerning prep, about: I've had a letter from the tax authorities concerning

my tax payments

49 condition noun, [C] any of a variety of diseases: a medical condition

o conditions plural n, the physical situation that someone or something is in and affected by: weather/work conditions; Under what conditions do plants grow

best?

50. conduct v [T] to organize and perform a particular activity: We are conducting a

survey to find out what our customers think; The experiments were conducted by scientists in Hanoi

51 consider v [I or T] to spend time thinking about a possibility or making a decision:

Don't make any decisions before you've considered the matter

o considered adj, considered opinion/view/decision

o consideration n [U] when you think about something carefully

o considerable adj, large or of noticeable importance: The fire caused

considerable damage to the church

o considerably adv, The farm is considerably bigger than 5 years ago

52 consist v

o consist in sth phrasal verb [L not continuous]: to have something as a major

and essential part or quality: The job consists in cleaning the fish tanks

o consist of sth phrasal verb [L not continuous] : to be made of or formed from

something: It's a simple dish to prepare, consisting mainly of rice and

vegetables

53. constitute v[L not continuous]: to form or make something: Women constitute about

o consumer n [C] a person who buys goods or services for their own use

o consumption n[U] the amount used or eaten; when someone uses, eats, or

drinks something

55 contagious adj 1) describes a disease that can be caught by touching someone with

the disease or a piece of infected clothing: The infection is highly contagious, so don't

let anyone else use your towel 2) describes someone who has a contagious disease: Keep him off school till he stops being contagious

o contagion when a disease is spread by touching someone or something

56 contaminate v [T] to spoil the purity of something or make it poisonous:

Much of the coast has been contaminated by nuclear waste The food which had been contaminated was destroyed

o contaminant n[C] a substance that spoils the purity of something or makes it

poisonous: Make sure that all equipment is clean and free of contaminants

o contaminated adj, The infection was caused by swimming in water

contaminated with sewage

o contamination n [U] The water supply is being tested for contamination

57. context: n [C] the situation within which something exists or happens, and that can help explain it: This small battle is very important in the context of Vietnamese

history

o contextual adj related to the context

o contextually adv

58. contribute v [I or T], to give something, money, effort, time, in order to provide or

achieve something together with other people: His ideas contributed to the success of

the project

o contributor n [C] a person who contributes

o contribution n[C or U] something that you do or give to help produce or

achieve something together with other people, or to help make something successful

59 crab: n [C or U], a sea animal with five pairs of legs and a round flat body covered by

a shell, eaten as food: _

60 create v [T] to make something new, especially to invent something

o creation n [C or U]

61 crop: see harvest

62. crustacean: n [C], any of various types of animal which live in water and have a hard

outer shell: _

63 cultivate v [T] to prepare land and grow crops on it, or to grow a particular crop:

Most of the land there is too poor to cultivate The villagers cultivate mostly corn and beans

o cultivable adj, Most of the island isn't cultivable; the soil is too dry

o cultivated adj, describes land which is cultivated: cultivated fields/soil/land

o cultivationn[U]

64. culture n [C or U] cells, tissues, organs or organisms grown for scientific purposes, or

the breeding and keeping of particular living things in order to get the substances they produce

o culture verb [T]

65 cure v (see to treat) n (see treatment)

66. cycle n [C] 1) a group of events which happen in a particular order, one following the other, and which are often repeated: the life cycle of a shrimp 2) one in a series of

movements that a machine performs:the spin cycle

o cyclical adj (ALSO cyclic) Changes in the economy follow a cyclical pattern

D

67 damage v[T] to harm or spoil something: Buildings were damaged during the war

o damage n [U] harm or injury: Strong winds caused serious damage to the roof

o damaged adj harmed or spoilt: They're selling damaged goods at low prices

o damaging adj causing harm: Many chemicals have a damaging effect on the

environment

68 data group noun [U] information collected for examination and consideration and used

to help decision-making: The data was/were collected by various researchers

69 deficiency n [C or U] lack of what is needed: Pregnant women often suffer from iron

o deformed adj with a shape that has not developed normally: deformed hands

o deformation n [U] the deformation of the bones was caused by poor diet

o deformity n[C or U

71 demand v [T] to need something such as time, effort, or a particular quality:

This is a very difficult piece of music to play - it demands a lot of concentration

o demand n [C or U] a need for something to be sold or supplied: supply and

demand

o demanding adj, needing a lot of time, attention or energy: a demanding

job/task

72 density n [C or U] (ALSO denseness) the number of people or things in a place when

compared with the size of the place: The area has a high/low population density

o dense adj, thick; close together; difficult to go or see through: dense fog; a

dense forest

o densely adv

73 depend on/upon sth: v [I], to be decided by or to vary according to the stated thing: Whether or not we go to Spain for our holiday depends on the cost

o dependent on/upon sth: adj, influenced or decided by something

74. derive v, derive sth from sth to get or obtain something from something else:

The institute derives all its money from foreign investments derive from sth phrasal

verb [often passive] to come from something: The English word 'olive' is derived from the Latin word 'oliva'

o derivation n [C or U]

o derivative n [C] 'Detestable' is a derivative of 'detest'

75. despite prep, without taking any notice of or being influenced by; not prevented by:

I still enjoyed the week despite the weather [+ ing form of verb] He managed to eat a

big lunch despite having eaten an enormous breakfast

76 detect v [T] to notice/discover something that is partly hidden or not clear, especially

using a special method: High levels of lead were detected in the meat of fish

o detectable adj, There has been no detectable change in the patient's condition

o detection n [U] Early detection of the cancer improves the chances of

successful treatment

o detector [C] a device used to find particular substances or things, or measure

their level:a metal/smoke detector

77 diagnose v [T] to recognize/identify a disease or a problem, by making an

examination: The specialist diagnosed cancer His condition was diagnosed as a blood

disorder; She was diagnosed with/as having diabetes

o diagnosis n [C or U] plural diagnoses

o diagnostic adj, diagnostic techniques/tests

78 diet: n [C or U] the food and drink usually taken by a person or group: healthy/

balanced/ varied diet

o dietary: adj, relating to diet

79. diminish v[I or T] to reduce or be reduced in size or importance: We've seen our

house diminish greatly/sharply/substantially in value over the last six months

o diminution n[C or U]

80. dis/charge v [I or T] to send out a substance, especially waste liquid or gas: Large

amounts of dangerous waste are discharged daily by the factory

o discharge n [C or U] 1) when waste liquid or gas is sent out: Thousands of fish

were killed as a result of a discharge of poisonous chemicals from a nearby

factory

81 dissolve: v[I or T] (of a solid) to be absorbed by a liquid, especially when mixed, or

(of a liquid) to absorb a solid: Dissolve two spoons of powder in warm water; Nitric

acid will dissolve most animal tissue; low-dissolved oxygen level

82 distribute v [T] to give something out to several people, or to spread or supply

something: The books will be distributed free to local schools The company wants to

distribute its products throughout the European Union

o distribution n [C or U] an unfair distribution of wealth; distribution costs

83. dramatic adj, very sudden or noticeable: a dramatic change/improvement

o dramatically adv

84 drug n [C] any natural or artificially made chemical which is used as a medicine:

anti-cancer/fertility/pain-killing drugs; a prescription drug; drug therapy

E

85 economy: n [C] the system of trade and industry by which the wealth of a country is

made and used:Vietnam's economy; a weak/strong economy

o economics: n (U) the study of economy

o economist: n (C) a person who has special knowledge of economy

o economic: adj, making a profit

o economical: adj, not using a lot of money, fuel

o uneconomic(al): antonym, not economical

o economize: v

o economically: adv

86 eel: n (C), a long, thin snake-like fish, some types of which are eaten:

87. element n [C] 1) a part of something: We haven’t the elements of (= basic information about) physics yet 2) a simple substance which cannot be reduced to

smaller chemical parts: Aluminum is an element

88 emergency: n[C or U] something dangerous or serious which happens suddenly or

unexpectedly and needs immediate action in order to avoid harmful results: The farmer

must make an emergency harvest because she discovered a serious infection;

89 emit v [T] -tt- to send out a beam, noise, smell or gas: The alarm emits infra-red rays

which are used to detect any intruder

o emission n 1) [U] when gas, heat, light, etc is sent out: The government have

called for a substantial reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases by industries 2) [C] an amount of gas, heat, light, etc that is sent out: The increased use of natural gas will help reduce carbon dioxide emissions

90 endemic adj especially of a disease or a condition, regularly found and very common

among a particular group or in a particular area: Malaria is endemic in tropical

92. enrich v 1) [T] to improve the quality of something by adding something else:

Fertilizer helps to enrich the soil 2) [T often R] to make something or someone richer:

He claimed that the large stores were enriching themselves at the expense of their customers

o enrichment n[U]

93. environment n [C] the conditions that you live or work in and the way that they

influence how you feel or how effectively you can work: Nha Trang provides a nice

living environment

o environmental adj

o environmentally adv

94 equal adj the same in amount, number or size, or the same in importance and

deserving the same treatment: All people are equal, deserving the same rights as each

o equalize, v [T] to make things or people equal

o equally adv to the same degree or level, or into amounts or parts that are the

same

95 equivalent adj having the same amount, qualities, etc: Is $50 equivalent to about

£30?

o equivalent n [C usually singular] Ten thousand people a year die of the disease

- that's the equivalent of the population of this town

o equivalence n There's a general equivalence between the two concepts

96. equate v[T] to consider one thing to be the same as or equal to another thing

97 erode v [I or T] to rub or be rubbed away gradually; slowly reduce or destroy: Wind

98. estimate n[C] a guess of what the size, value, amount, cost, etc of something might

be: The number of people who applied for the course was 120 compared with an initial

estimate of between 50 and 100; a conservative (= low) estimate; a rough (= not

exact) estimate

o estimate v [T] [+ (that)] They estimate (that) the journey will take at least

two weeks.[+ question word] It was difficult to estimate how many trees had

been destroyed

o estimated adj, an estimated cost/value

99 establish v [T] 1) to discover or get proof of something: Before we decide, we must

establish the facts/truth.[+ (that)] We have established (that) she was born in 1900

2) to start a company or organisation

100 evaluate v [T] to judge or calculate the quality, importance, amount or value

1. evaluation n [C or U]

101 eventual adj[before noun] happening or existing at a later time or at the end,

especially after a lot of effort, problems, etc: The Dukes were the eventual winners of

the competition

1. eventually adv in the end, especially after a long time or a lot of effort,

problems, etc: Although she had been ill for a long time, it still came as a

shock when she eventually died

102. evidence n[U] one or more reasons for believing that something is or is not

true: The police have found no evidence of a terrorist link with the murder [+ to infinitive] There is no scientific evidence to suggest that underwater births are

dangerous [+ that] Is there any scientific evidence that a person's future is reflected

in r palms?

103 estuary n [C] the wide part of a river at the place where it joins the sea

1. estuarine adj, estuarine species

104 evidence n [U] one or more reasons for believing that something is (not) true

only became evident the following morning

106 expand: v [I or T], to increase in size, number or importance, or to make

something increase in this way: The air in the balloon expands when heated

1 expandable: adj, able to increase in size

2 expansion: n (C or U)

are increasing yearly; import(bring in), export

1 export n[C or U] Coffee is one of Brazil's main exports

2 exportable adj

3 exportation n[U] These crates have been packed for exportation

4 exporter n[C] a person, country or business that sells goods to another country

108 extensive: adj covering a large area, a great range: extensive knowledge

1 extinction n [U] The extinction of the dinosaurs occurred millions of

years ago Many species of plants and animals are in danger

of/threatened with extinction (= being destroyed so that they no

longer exist)

F

111 factor: n[C] a fact or situation which influences the result of something:

Heavy snow was a contributing factor in the accident Price will be a major/crucial factor in the success of this new product

Her economic theories are in favor (= popular) with the current government

1 favor v [T]

2 favorable adj giving you an advantage or more chance of success:

favorable weather conditions

3. favorably adv, Our products compare favorably with others

4 favored adj

113 fertilize: verb [T] 1) to cause an egg or seed to start to develop into a new

young animal or plant by joining it with a male cell: Once an egg is fertilized by the

sperm, it becomes an embryo 2) to spread substance on land or plants, in order to

make the plants grow well

1. fertilizer n [C]

2 fertile adj 1 describes animals or plants that are able to produce (a lot of) young or fruit; infertile is its antonym 2) describes a seed or egg that

is able to develop into a new plant or animal

3 fertility n, the quality of being fertile: declining fertility rate

114. final adj last: a final warning/offer; the final chapters of a book

1. finalize [T] to make a final and certain decision about a plan, date, etc:

We'll finalize the details later

115 finance v[T] to provide the money needed for something to happen:

The local authority has refused to finance the project

1 finance n [C or U]

2 financial adj, relating to money or how money is managed

3 financially adv

116 fingerling n [C] see fry

118 fluctuate v [I] to change or vary, especially continuously and between one

level or thing and another: Vegetable prices fluctuate according to the season;

fluctuating prices

1 fluctuation n[C or U] fluctuations in share prices/the exchange

rate/temperature

119. formula n plural formulas or formulae [C] a standard or accepted way of

doing or making something, the items needed for it, or a mathematical rule expressed

in a set of numbers and letters: We had to learn chemical formulae at school, but I can

only remember H 2 O for water

1 formulate v [T] to develop all the details of a plan for doing something:

120 fry n [U] plural n,, young, small fish (after hatching and before larvae)

121. function n [C] the natural purpose (of something) or the duty (of a person):

The function of the veins is to carry blood to the heart

A thermostat performs the function of controlling temperature

1 functional adj designed to be practical and useful rather than attractive:

functional clothing/furniture