La traduction et la culture
La traduction : Genèse et Développement
Tracing the history of translation studies involves sifting through centuries of literature to connect historical fragments, ultimately aiming to provide a concise overview of the discipline Unlike other sciences, such as natural or social sciences, which initially had a clear object of study, translation studies is considered a relatively young field that gained recognition largely due to the foundational article by James Holmes.
The history of translation dates back to several decades before Christ, with authors like Cicero and Horace laying the groundwork Initially, translation served as an auxiliary discipline within linguistic studies, but it gained recognition as a legitimate science focused on translation research in the 1960s This section aims to outline the evolution of translation without exhaustive detail, establishing a framework to facilitate future research.
The translation discussed here has evolved into a distinct discipline that captivates scholars from various fields, including linguistics, psychology, sociolinguistics, information theory, and literary studies, particularly following the influential publication of James Holmes' foundational article.
In 1988, Holmes introduced the concept of Translation Studies, marking the inception of this emerging field He consolidated various reflections on translation from diverse researchers, highlighting the interdisciplinary nature of translation research.
(Katharina Reiss, 2009, p.2), en lui donnant un nom Translation Studies et avant tout en définissant ses sous-disciplines
Figure 1.1 La cartographie sur la traductologie proposée par Holmes
Figure 1.2 La traductologie appliquée (Source : Munday (2001, p.11))
Dans cette carte disciplinaire, Holmes affecte deux tâches à cette “science empirique” :
- Proposer des théories explicatives et prédictives pour en rendre compte (Gile,
Translation studies is divided into two sub-disciplines: pure translation studies and applied translation studies General theoretical translation studies encompass all research related to translation, regardless of its type, while partial theoretical translation studies focus on specific parameters of the translation process, including spatio-temporal elements and text types.
Dans l‟effort de simplifier la carte disciplinaire présenté par James Holmes lors du troisième Congrès mondial de linguistique appliquée de l‟AILA qui s‟est tenu à
From August 21 to 26, 1972, Copenhagen hosted a significant event in translation studies In his 2005 book "Problématiques de la traduction," Reiss, building on Holmes' framework, sought to outline a comprehensive model for translation theory.
Figure 1.3 La carte disciplinaire de la traductologie
Concernant la dimension spatiale de la traduction
Concernant le niveau de langue
Concernant le type de traduction
Concernant le type de texte
Concernant la dimension temporelle de la traduction
Exigences de la profession de traducteur et conditions de travail
In terms of quantity, Reiss's mapping remains unchanged from Holmes's, as no additions or deletions have been made The key innovation introduced by Reiss is the removal of the second level of hierarchy that distinguishes pure translation and applied translation in Holmes's framework Instead, Reiss places descriptive translation and theoretical translation on the same level as applied translation.
Daniel Gile aligns his thoughts with Holmes, arguing that Holmes's proposed mapping presents a blend of categories He notes that the presentation of two branches within a single framework—comprising both descriptive and theoretical approaches, as well as applications in didactics, politics, and tools—appears to be a mixture of categories (Gile, 2005, p.241) Gile contends that both applied and descriptive translation studies can incorporate components of translation teaching and practice In this context, he introduces his own model of translation studies, which distinguishes not between pure translation studies (fundamental research) and applied translation studies, but rather between two types of translation: written translation and interpretation.
Figure 1.4 Le schéma de traductologie (Source : Gile (2005, p 241))
In 1988, Holmes' research, despite some imperfections noted by authors like Reiss and Gile, laid the groundwork for a new field known as translation studies in English and traductologie in French However, Holmes was not the first to contribute to the foundations of this discipline; earlier contributions from authors such as Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet, particularly in stylistics, also played a significant role.
The study of translation has evolved through the contributions of various scholars, from ancient figures like Cicero and Horace to more recent thinkers such as Dolet, Dryden, and Tytler Roman Jakobson's 1959 work distinguishes three forms of translation: intralingual (reformulation), interlingual (language-to-language), and intersemiotic translation While many authors, including Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet, focus on linguistic aspects, their insights are crucial for understanding translation as a discipline However, they often fail to generalize the field's scope, as highlighted by Holmes' framework Ignoring these foundational concepts would create a significant gap in contemporary translation studies.
The emergence of a new science has paved the way for the development of innovative translation theories that extend beyond mere linguistic operations Various communicative and functional parameters are now integral to the translation process, positioning it as a field that transcends traditional linguistics This contemporary understanding of translation embraces communication science, textual linguistics, text theory, and reception theory Unlike approaches that align translation with established disciplines, these new theories aim to enhance the autonomy and independence of translation studies by focusing on translation itself Among the latest theories, the Interpretive Theory of Translation (TIT), also known as the Theory of Meaning, proposed by Danica, stands out.
Selescovitch and Marianne Lederer's work, along with the Skopos Theory developed by Hans Vermeer and Katharina Reiss, will be explored In the second chapter, a detailed presentation of the Interpretive Theory of Translation (TIT) will serve as the theoretical framework for the analysis of the corpus.
1.1.2 La traduction littéraire et ses spécificités
Throughout history, various types of translation have been developed, reflecting the evolving dominant concepts in the field The proliferation of typologies indicates the growing interest of authors in translation studies While these types may have different names based on the authors' categorization approaches, they often convey similar ideas Notably, recent works present translation types in increasingly detailed ways, often incorporating those from the past This section aims to showcase classifications from prominent translation scholars who have explored this aspect.
La distinction entre la traduction interlinéaire et communicative laisse encore ses traces dans la typologie faite par des auteurs, à savoir Dryden dans sa traduction de
Ovid’s Epistles (1680) Dryden a classé toutes les traductions en trois types :
Metaphrase refers to the word-for-word translation of text from one language to another, line by line Through this classification, Dryden aimed to critique Ben Johnson's translation of Horace's "Art of Poetry."
Paraphrasing involves a translator focusing on the author's intent rather than strictly adhering to the original wording This approach prioritizes conveying the meaning over the exact phrasing, ensuring that the essence of the text is preserved while allowing for a more fluid and natural translation.
- L’imitation : Le traducteur tire de l‟original une source d‟inspiration pour en créer une autre en s‟éloignant des mots voire le sens dans le texte-source
La langue et la culture
1.2.1 Les définitions de la culture
Language is the most beautiful flower of a culture, intricately connected to its stem and roots Our deep attachment to it encompasses the community that inherits and safeguards it.
Fernand Dumont, a Canadian sociologist, eloquently highlighted the inseparable relationship between language and culture Recognizing this connection, numerous sociologists and anthropologists began exploring the topic in the early 19th century Notable pioneers in this field include Wilhelm von Humboldt and Heyman Steinthal, who contributed significantly to our understanding of the interplay between language and cultural identity.
Key figures in linguistic anthropology, including Wilhelm von Humboldt, Franz Boas, Edward Sapir, and Benjamin Lee Whorf, have emphasized that each language encapsulates a unique worldview They argue that every culture perceives and interprets reality in its own distinct manner, highlighting the intricate relationship between language and thought.
An illustrative example of linguistic variation can be seen in color terminology In French, the word "bleu" corresponds to two different shades in Russian: "goluboj" for light blue and "sinij" for dark blue Conversely, in Celtic languages, both "vert" (green) and "bleu" (blue) are represented by a single term, "glas" (Oustinoff, 2003, p.14).
Language is undoubtedly a crucial part of culture, but what exactly is culture? Recognizing the complexity of this term, we will first explore various definitions before examining the close relationship between these two components An analysis of documents reveals a wide range of definitions shaped primarily by philosophers, sociologists, psychologists, and anthropologists In 1952, American anthropologists Clyde Kluckhohn and Alfred Kroeber identified no fewer than 164 distinct definitions This section aims to outline the definitions provided by key authors Bajomée, in his work "Elements of Cultural Anthropology," takes us on a journey through the past to better understand the concept of culture.
Denis Diderot, in the 18th century, defined culture as the literary heritage accumulated since antiquity, which Western nations claim to have built their civilization upon (Bajomée, 2012, p.63) This common understanding of culture encompasses knowledge of significant works in history, art, music, and science Such knowledge contributes to the distinction between individuals deemed "cultivated" and those who are not.
In 1917, Alfred Kroeber described culture as a superior reality that influences individual behavior This definition highlights an expanded understanding of culture, which encompasses not only literary heritage but also the rules governing human conduct Thus, culture can be seen as a form of heritage passed down through generations.
The term "culture" has various meanings, one of which is encapsulated in the expression "to be cultured." In the 20th century, being cultured meant possessing knowledge of literature, arts, and sciences However, in different contexts, culture can also represent behaviors that may seem inexplicable, such as the notion that arriving late to appointments is characteristic of Latin culture (Journet, 2002, p.6).
Edward Tylor, a British anthropologist, defines culture as a complex whole that encompasses all knowledge, techniques, beliefs, arts, values, laws, customs, and other capabilities acquired by an individual as a member of society He emphasizes the importance of technical, symbolic, and social skills developed by human societies in this definition.
Canadian sociologist Guy Rocher defines culture as a collection of shared ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that are learned and formalized among a diverse group of people This culture serves both objective and symbolic purposes, helping to shape individuals into a distinct and cohesive community.
In 1930, Sigmund Freud introduced a concept suggesting that culture encompasses all the works and organizations that distance humanity from its ancestral animal state He argued that culture serves two primary purposes: to protect humans from the forces of nature and to regulate interpersonal relationships among individuals.
American anthropologist Ralph Linton views culture similarly to Freud, defining it as the collection of norms, concepts, symbols, and values transmitted by a group This cultural framework serves to adapt individuals to their social environment.
In 1944, Bronislav Malinowski defined culture as the entirety of tools and consumer goods, ideas and arts, beliefs, and customs By 1949, Clyde Kluckhohn echoed this sentiment, emphasizing the comprehensive nature of culture.
Culture is acquired by individuals through their membership in a specific group, representing the learned behaviors we share with others It encompasses a set of techniques that enable us to adapt to both our environment and social interactions As our social heritage, culture contrasts with our organic inheritance and is a crucial factor for living harmoniously in an organized society It provides ready-made solutions to our problems, helps us anticipate others' behaviors, and clarifies what they can expect from us Culture influences our lives at every turn, exerting a constant pressure from birth to death, guiding us to follow behaviors shaped by others (Kluckhohn, 1949, p.36).
Despite the complex nature of the term "culture," it is evident from the definitions provided that culture is a broad concept encompassing knowledge across various fields, skills, and behavioral norms This culture enables individuals to integrate into human society, distinguishing them from their animalistic state Unlike genetic heritage, which is inherited, culture is learned and passed down through generations.
Les facteurs culturels
Researching cultural pitfalls in translation requires an effort to explore the historical connection between culture and translation, elements that were historically overlooked by translators The complex nature of this relationship, along with the contemporary context of translation studies, necessitates a review of the history of research in this field Our study does not aim for exhaustiveness, as that exceeds our capabilities, but rather seeks to provide a representative overview The documentary research is limited to works written in English and French that address the topic at hand.
1.3.1 Les facteurs culturels dans les recherches de la traduction
Despite its existence since centuries B.C., translation has long been viewed as a secondary activity focused on highlighting differences between language pairs The development of linguistics further reinforced this perspective, with early research in translation studies initiated by linguists aiming to illuminate distinctive features of languages In the early 19th century, linguistics gained momentum, yet translation was not recognized as an independent science but rather as a branch of applied linguistics The 1958 publication of "Comparative Stylistics of French and English" by J.P Vinay and J Darbelnet marked a significant exploration of translation by comparing two linguistic systems and addressing specific translation processes and challenges However, this work primarily focused on linguistic issues that concerned contrastive linguistics It was commonly accepted that translation problems were solely linguistic in nature, with researchers concentrating on the linguistic aspects of translation The main concern for translators was how to remain faithful to the source text, yet the concept of fidelity was vague and required clarification with more precise definitions Questions arose about fidelity to what and whom—linguistic or cultural elements? It became evident that word-for-word translation, which adhered strictly to linguistic structures, often resulted in incorrect translations, indicating that the act of translating needed to be viewed from perspectives beyond linguistics.
Conscient de cette réalité, dans Les problèmes théoriques de la traduction,
Mounin a mis en avant dans son chapitre XIII un fait théorique qui marquerait un tournant décisif dans la vision de recherche de la traductologie
To effectively translate a foreign language, two essential conditions must be met: first, one must study the foreign language itself; second, one must systematically study the ethnography of the community that speaks this language Without fulfilling both of these criteria, no translation can be deemed fully adequate.
les mots ne peuvent pas être compris correctement, séparés des phénomènes culturels localisés dont ils sont les symboles (Ibid., p.237)
Mounin's reflections suggest that translation extends beyond mere linguistic dimensions, necessitating an exploration of cultural aspects as it represents a transfer between two cultural systems expressed through language Since language is intrinsically linked to culture, analyzing translation solely from a linguistic perspective leads to an incomplete understanding of the realities being conveyed between cultures Thus, translation studies require interdisciplinary approaches that incorporate fields such as literature, sociology, and psychoanalysis Mounin emphasized the importance of these interdisciplinary studies to grasp the multifaceted nature of translation, particularly its cultural character, which had previously been overlooked This call was later echoed by Meschonnic, who introduced the concept of "language-culture," asserting that language and culture form an inseparable whole, where language embodies the intricate blend of culture, literature, people, nations, and individual experiences.
According to Meschonnic, each language reflects its culture, suggesting that translation should be viewed through a cultural lens Berman also emphasized that translation is an integral part of cultural transfer, marking the transition of a work from one culture to another Consequently, the cultural dimension of translation became a focal point in translation studies during the 1980s and 1990s, leading to a culturalist approach that transformed the field Acknowledging the essential role of culture in translation quality, translators and scholars have made significant efforts to highlight the need for more in-depth studies on this often-overlooked cultural element Susan Bassnett, in her book Translation Studies, dedicates the first chapter, titled "Central Issues," to exploring the relationship between language and culture.
Translation goes beyond merely transferring meaning from one language to another through the use of dictionaries and grammar; it also encompasses a range of extralinguistic factors that influence the process (Bassnett, 2002, p.21).
Basnett emphasizes the significance of cultural factors in translation, referencing Sapir and Whorf's assertion that "language is a guide to social reality." They further argue that "no language can exist unless it is steeped in the context of culture," highlighting the intrinsic link between language and culture in shaping social understanding.
To illustrate her point, she used the simple term "hello" in English as an example When translating it into French, German, and Italian, cultural differences create challenges Unlike the English, who do not differentiate between greetings in person and over the phone, the French, Germans, and Italians do make this distinction Consequently, dictionaries provide varied translations for "hello": in French, it is "ça va?" or "hallo."
In Italian, "Pronto" is used for telephone greetings, while "Hallo" serves the same purpose in German and "Bonjour" in French While "Hello" functions as a greeting, its French equivalent "Ça va ?" is a rhetorical question Linguistically, "Ça va ?" translates to "How do you do?" or "How are you?" in English, but these phrases are reserved for formal situations Additionally, the Italian word "Ciao" is used for greetings both at the beginning and end of a meeting Translating a simple term like "Hello" requires consideration of various cultural elements.
In 1988, Peter Newmark emphasized the significance of cultural factors in translation, identifying them as major challenges for translators He presented a chapter on translating proper names, institutional terms, and cultural elements, providing concrete examples and specific translation processes for each type In 1995, he further explored the relationship between translation and culture in his book "A Textbook of Translation," where he distinguished between cultural language, universal language, and personal language Newmark argued that universal language poses no translation difficulties as it reflects commonly shared realities, while cultural language can create challenges, especially when there is no equivalent in the target culture Drawing inspiration from Nida's categorization of cultural equivalence difficulties, Newmark classified cultural factors into five categories: ecology, material culture, social culture, social organization-political and administrative, and gestures and habits, each accompanied by detailed explanations and translation strategies Notably, in the material culture category, he highlighted clothing as a cultural trait requiring translation, suggesting the process of retaining the original term while adding a generic term, or using the generic term alone if the original term lacks relevance.
In his 1989 work "Contemporary Theories of Translation," Robert Larose explores the relationship between translation and culture, referencing influential anthropologists like Humboldt and Whorf, who suggest a correlation between objective experience and linguistic structures He addresses the issue of linguistic and cultural untranslatability raised by Catford in 1965 and concludes by questioning whether translators should interpret cultural divergences themselves or leave this interpretation to their readers.
Le rôle des facteurs culturels dans la traduction a été relevé dans la partie
Importance des faits de la culture Larose constate que :
The hypnotic appeal of the original text, combined with a lack of understanding of the target culture, often leads to unintelligible messages for the audience, which is a significant flaw in translation A key contribution of Nida, following the work of Sapir and Malinowski, is the assertion that mere knowledge of languages is insufficient; translators must also be familiar with the customs and practices of the speakers.
En 1994, Marianne Lederer a traité la question du transfert culturel dans son œuvre La traduction aujourd’hui
One of the most frequently cited challenges in translation is the issue of cultural differences Objects or concepts unique to a specific culture often lack direct lexical equivalents in the target language Even if these ideas can be expressed, the translator cannot assume that the reader will fully understand their nature Cultural aspects such as clothing, dietary habits, and religious traditions referenced in the original text may not be clear to the translation's audience Therefore, effective translation goes beyond merely finding the right words; it involves conveying the implicit cultural context that the original language encompasses (Lederer, 1994, p.122).
According to Lederer, each language shapes the world in its unique way, leading to potential cultural challenges Addressing Nida's concerns about cultural untranslatability, the author asserts that translation goes beyond mere transcodification A translator, being both bilingual and bicultural, can convey foreign realities within another culture, even if those realities are absent in the target culture This ability allows the translator to broaden understanding for those unfamiliar with the foreign context As noted, if individuals could only perceive what they already know, knowledge acquisition would be limited to language learning and its meanings.
In foreign literature, there exists a universal language that, according to Newmark, all readers can potentially understand However, when it comes to cultural practices, customs, and traditions that require additional knowledge, it is the responsibility of translators to facilitate comprehension for the reader Lederer has identified specific translation techniques for cultural transfer, including adaptation, conversion, explicitation, and ethnocentrism, which will be further explored in the detailed section on the Interpretive Theory of Translation (ITT).