(LUẬN VĂN THẠC SĨ) An investigation into code switching on Facebook social network by English-Vietnamese bilingual users in the author’s friend list from socio-linguistic approach

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Nowadays, when English is required as a second language in our society, Code Switching occurs in every field of daily life: from daily conversation to news, intervi

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

-

DƯƠNG THỊ HỒNG THẮM

AN INVESTIGATION INTO CODE SWITCHING ON

FACEBOOK SOCIAL NETWORK BY ENGLISH-VIETNAMESE BILINGUAL USERS IN THE AUTHOR’S FRIEND LIST FROM

SOCIO-LINGUISTIC APPROACH

(NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ HIỆN TƯỢNG CHUYỂN NGỮ TRÊN MẠNG

XÃ HỘI FACEBOOK BỞI NHỮNG NGƯỜI THÔNG THẠO HAI NGOẠI NGỮ ANH-VIỆT TRONG DANH SÁCH BẠN BÈ CỦA TÁC GIẢ THEO ĐƯỜNG HƯỚNG NGÔN NGỮ HỌC XÃ HỘI)

M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English linguistics

Code: 60220201

HANOI - 2016

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

-

DƯƠNG THỊ HỒNG THẮM

AN INVESTIGATION INTO CODE SWITCHING ON

FACEBOOK SOCIAL NETWORK BY ENGLISH-VIETNAMESE BILINGUAL USERS IN THE AUTHOR’S FRIEND LIST FROM

SOCIO-LINGUISTIC APPROACH

(NGHIÊN CỨU VỀ HIỆN TƯỢNG CHUYỂN NGỮ TRÊN MẠNG

XÃ HỘI FACEBOOK BỞI NHỮNG NGƯỜI THÔNG THẠO HAI NGOẠI NGỮ ANH-VIỆT TRONG DANH SÁCH BẠN BÈ CỦA TÁC GIẢ THEO ĐƯỜNG HƯỚNG NGÔN NGỮ HỌC XÃ HỘI)

M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English linguistics

Code: 60220201

Supervisor: Dr Đỗ Thị Thanh Hà

HANOI - 2016

DECLARATION

I hereby, certify the thesis entitled “An investigation into code switching on Facebook social network by English-Vietnamese bilingual users in the author‟s friend list from socio-linguistic approach” is the result of my own research for the Minor Degree of Master of Arts at University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi The thesis has not been submitted for any degree at any other universities or institutions I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the library can be accessible for the purposes of study and research

September, 2016

Dương Thị Hồng Thắm

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to show my gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility to complete this thesis

I have sincere thanks to all of the informants, or the people on my friend list

on Facebook for giving me permission to to use, analyze as well as cite their comments and statuses Especially, they were all enthusiastic, helpful, and gave me valuable answers

I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Dr Đỗ Thị Thanh Hà, whose encouragement, guidance and support enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject and to accomplish the final version of the thesis as expected

This thesis would not have be possible but for my lecturers in the M.A course, namely Prof Dr Hoàng Văn Vân, Assoc Prof Dr Lê Hùng Tiến, Dr Nguyễn Huy

Kỷ, Dr Ngô Hữu Hoàng, and Dr Huỳnh Anh Tuấn I would like to thank them for their interesting lectures, devotion, assistance and valuable hints

Especially, I owe my deepest gratitude to my family, friends, and colleagues whose encouragement helped me finish this work

Last but not least, I offer my regards to all of those who supported me in any respect

during the completion of the study

LIST OF TABLES AND ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATIONS

L1: First language

L2: Second language

SNS: Social network sites

CMC: Computer-Mediated Communications

TABLES

Table 1: Breakdown of detected code-switching instances according to Poplack‟s

(1980) typology 25

Table 2:Breakdown of intra-sentential code-switching by syntactic category 26

Table 3: Breakdown of other word classes 27

Table 4: Switched nouns and noun phrases by semantic category 30

Table 5: Switched verbs, phrasal verbs and verb phrases by semantic category 31

Table 6: Analysis of sentence-boundary inter-sentential code-switching 37

Table 7: Breakdown of specific reasons for code-switching (proposed byMalik 1994) 29

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration i

Acknowledgements ii

Abstract iii

List of tables and abbreviations iv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Purpose of the study 1

1.3 Research questions 2

1.4 Significance of the study 2

1.5 Scope of the study 3

1.6 Outline of the thesis 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 4

A THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 4

2.1 Code, code-switching, code-mixing 4

2.1.1 Code 4

2.1.2 Code-switching 4

2.1.2.1 Definitions 4

2.1.2.2.Types of code-switching 5

2.1.2.3.Why do people code-switch? 6

2.1.3 Code-switching and code-mixing 9

2.1.4 Code-switching and lexical borrowing 11

2.2 Linguistic constraints on code-switching 12

2.3 Bilingualism 14

2.4 Sociolinguistics 15

2.5 Facebook 15

2.6 Language on Facebook 16

B PREVIOUS STUDIES 16

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 20

3.1 Research hypothesis 20

3.2 Participants 20

3.3 Data corpus description 21

3.4 Methods of data collection 21

3.5 Coding scheme 22

3.6 Methods of data analysis 23

3.7 Procedure 24

3.8 Recapitulation 25

CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS 27

4.1 Introduction 27

4.2 Research question 1: What are the types of code-switching found in the data 27

4.2.1 Classification of detected instances of code-switching according to Poplack‟s (1980) typology 27

4.2.2 Estimation of instances of intra-sentential code-switching by syntactic category 28

4.2.3 Description of intra-sentential code-switching by syntactic category 30

4.2.3.1.Nouns and noun phrases 30

4.2.3.2.Verbs and verb phrases 32

4.2.3.3 Adjectives 34

4.2.3.4 Adverbs 34

4.2.3.5 Prepositions and prepositional phrase 34

4.2.3.6 Sentence 35

4.2.3.7 Interjection 32

4.2.3.8 Rules violated cases 36

4.2.3.9 Special cases 36

4.2.3.9.1 Vocabulary transcribed from English into Vietnamese 37

4.2.3.9.2.The use of qualifier and to-infinitive 37

4.2.3.9.3 Vietnamese switched words 37

4.2.4 Extra-sentential code-switching 38

4.2.5 Inter-sentential code-switching 38

4.3 Research question 2: What are the reasons for the use of code-switching in

general and in specific instances? 40

4.4 Discussion 49

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 50

5.1 Recapitulation 50

5.2 Limitations of the study 51

5.3 Suggestions for further studies 52

REFERENCES I APPENDIX A IV APPENDIX B XIII

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

1.1 RATIONALE

English which is widely considered the international language and spoken by innumerable people has become the primary communication tool for many purposes The ISO 3166-1 code lists 83 countries and regions with English as

"official language" (ISO 3166-1 Codes for the representation of names of countries and their subdivisions.) At present, up to 1.8 billion people around the world speak English, thus it is the most widely used "second" and "learning" language in the world used for international communication in various fields like aviation, business, internet, science and technology to name only some Therefore, learning English is now becoming more popular than ever before in Vietnam One of the most interesting things to note is that for people who know English, especially those studying, living abroad or using different languages other than their mother tongue have a tendency to mix the two languages, i.e English and Vietnamese, in conversation as well as in written contexts Code-switching, the practice of moving back and forth between two languages or between two dialects or registers of the same language, therefore is inevitable and sometimes unconscious, especially when people, especially youngsters, join social networks For example, it is not surprising

to see a status update on Facebook which contains switched words, phrases, or sentences Moreover, the frequency of finding code-switching practice on Facebook sites is quite high and the influence of language use on Facebook users is becoming much greater Therefore, this thesis aims to provide some background knowledge about the patterns of code switching used on Facebook, the reasons why bilinguals code-switch and lay foundation for further studies

1.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Nowadays, when English is required as a second language in our society, Code Switching occurs in every field of daily life: from daily conversation to news, interview, discussion on television, on radio as well as newspapers, magazines and

so on The special phenomenon had been previously researched as the matter of bilingualism Therefore, once choosing and carrying out this study, I have two main objectives as follows:

1 To find out what type of code-switching is most commonly used by Vietnamese bilinguals in the author‟s friend list

English-2 To investigate the reasons for code-switching

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study aims at seeking answers to the following questions:

1 What are the types of code-switching in bilinguals‟ Facebook status updates and comments?

2 What are the reasons for the use of code-switching in general and specific

instances?

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society They are interested in explaining why people speak differently in different social contexts, and concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the way it is used to convey social meaning Examining the way people use language in different social contexts provides a wealth of relationships in a community and the way people signal aspects of their social identity through their language (Holmes:2001) Moreover, in a bilingual or multilingual society, it is normal for people to be in the situation where a change between two or more languages has to be made That phenomenon is called code-switching For bilingual speakers, code-switching is a valuable tool for various reasons The alternation between two languages in the form code switching is widely observed in many settings and in many speech communities However, it is an under-researched and rather new issue on Facebook which the paper attempts to look into Thus, once completed, its outcome may offer benefits to entities involved, namely English-Vietnamese bilinguals, linguists and teachers in general; and Facebook users who are in favor of code-switching, in particular This study partly helps them to get better understanding of code switching, the phenomenon that they often use but have little idea about Moreover, the study helps find out the practice of switching between the two languages Vietnamese and English, how these users employ code switching mechanism to organize, enhance and smoothen their writings More importantly, the paper helps figure out the reasons why Facebook users code-switch

In addition, researchers of the related fields can use the current paper for reference and carry out further and deeper investigation as it will add to the existing literature

on code-switching, specifically on computer-mediated written form It is important

as bilinguals will then be aware of the phenomenon that may occur during online communication via social net-working websites such as Facebook

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on the phenomenon of code-switching used on Facebook sites of ten bilinguals in the author‟s friend list Although there are several applications for Facebook users to communicate on this social network such as private and public

message, status, comment, note, chat, voice and video call and so on, some of them are hard to elicit As a result, only status updates and comments have been taken

into consideration, which means this work only examines patterns of switching in written form

code-1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

The rest of the study consists of four chapters which are as follows

Chapter two, Theoretical Background, reviews prominent literature directly relevant

to the topic being discussed

Chapter three, Methodology, presents the methods used for data collection and data analysis as well as justification for these methods

Chapter three is followed by the fourth chapter, Results and Discussion, in which the findings of the study are discussed to answer the research questions

Finally in chapter five, recapitulation of the whole study is presented before limitations of the study; suggestions for further studies and a conclusion are given

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

A variety is a set of linguistic forms used under specific social circumstances, i.e., with a distinctive social distribution…which includes different accents, different linguistic styles, different dialects and even different languages which contrast with each other for social reasons

The definitions by both authors show an emphasis on the speech community in which a variety is used, and on the linguistic items as components In the context of this study, the term “code” or “variety” will be taken as the first language used by speakers of a country

2.1.2 Code-Switching

2.1.2.1 Definitions

There are many different ways to define the phenomenon as a result of different research interest as well as how researchers view it According to Haddock (2008), code switching is the “consciously modifying speech to slip from one culture to another.” McCoy (2006, p.24), from different viewpoint, sees the phenomenon as the “change from lexical register to another” Knestrict & Schoensteadt (2005, p.177) refer to the “Shift in language that is guided by a shift in context” while Hughes, Shaunessy, and Brice (2006, p.8) define it as the “use of complete sentences, phrases, and borrowed words from another language”

To be more specific, code switching is created by those who live in or use different languages other than their mother tongue can switch from one language to another during interaction

Shana Poplack (1980, p.231), a very influential linguistics, simply defines switching as “the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituent”, often with no change of interlocutor or topic Simple as it may seem, this definition lists in descending order the possible places at which code-switching may occur, namely discourses, sentences, and constituents Besides, Poplack only uses the term “code-switching” for all cases of code alternation, which can exist below, at, or above sentence level The author bases on this definition to detect tokens of code-switching

code-2.1.2.2 Types of code switching

Bloom and Gumperz (1972) distinguishes two types of code-switching called situational and metaphorical code-switching, on the basis of sociolinguistic factors

In Bloom and Gumperz‟s (1972, p 424-425) view, situational switching takes place

in cases where speakers switch languages due to a change in the situation, such as a change in participant, topic or setting In short, situational code-switching occurs when the choice of language depends on the situation In contrast, metaphorical switching refers to cases when the choice of language determines the situation,

“because the speaker decides to ignore the observable external situation and focus instead on less observable characteristics of code-switching of the people concerned” (Hudson, 1996, p.53) Metaphorical code-switching can be employed as

a conversational strategy to assist conversational acts such as apologizing or requesting

From another perspective, Poplack (1980) divided code switching into three types including extra-sentential (tag switching), inter-sentential and intra-sentential ones The first type, extra-sentential code-switching, or tag switching relates to the inclusion of a tag phrase or a word, or both; for example, we can use “Ok”,

“Right?” “I mean” or “You know” into an utterance or sentence that is otherwise entirely in another language This type of code-switching is very simple and does not require a great command of both languages, since there is a minimum risk of violation of grammatical rules

The second type, inter-sentential switching, occurs in clause level or between

while the other clause is in another, e.g “Sometimes I‟ll start a sentence in English

y termino en espanol” (“Sometimes I‟ll start a sentence in English and finish in Spanish”) (Spanish-English bilingual recorded by Poplack (1980) in the Puerto Rican community of New York city) As for sentence boundary, it is not surprising

if we experiences sentences like “What a brilliant idea!!! Ôi mình sẽ tìm mọi cách mua cái bình nước này.”

The third type, intra-sentential switching occurs within the clause boundary In Spanish-English switching one could say, "La onda is to fight y jambar." ("The in-

code-switching, mainly because of the high probability of violation of syntactic rules, as well as the requirement of a great knowledge of both languages and how they can map onto each other

So far, Poplack‟s typology has been regarded as the most transparent and comprehensive one that covers all cases of code-switching without causing much confusion Therefore, it will be used as the conceptual framework to classify types

of code-switching found in recorded statuses and comments in this study

2.1.2.3 Why do people code switch?

Code switching often happens to bilinguals As we realize, there are some reasons why bilinguals code switch, with some reasons being conscious and some being unconscious Research has found that bilinguals code switch to convey or clarify meaning, learn new vocabulary, and help create a sense of ethnic identity and community Since code-switching is motivated by situations, the speakers may use

it to identify with a particular group of people (Hughes et al., 2006) Also, it can be

a sociolinguistic tool, used for clarification, emphasis, separation from feelings, and achievement of a dramatic effect (Hughes et al., 2006) By giving the speakers more ways to communicate, code-switching is a useful tool in the bilingual community Some researchers also found out that students code switch when their knowledge of the target language was insufficient, or when there is a communication breakdown,

to establish inter-subjectivity or because the pragmatic meaning of a word cannot be translated into the second language In this section, I will mention some research

findings for why people code switch Speakers may switch from one code to another either to show solidarity with a social group, to distinguish oneself, to participate in social encounters, to discuss a certain topic, to express feelings and affections, or to impress and persuade the audience

Appel and Muysken (2006) suggest that code-switching perform six main functions

as follows:

1 Referential function: code-switching stems from the lack of knowledge or facility

in a language Therefore, bilingual speakers switch code when they do not know the word or when a certain concept is not available in that language Moreover, language is chosen to code-switch due to the fact that it is more suitable to be used for a particular topic

2 Directive function: This participant-related function of code-switching aims to

include or exclude a person from part of a conversation such as by using a familiar

or foreign language to that person

3 Expressive function: Speakers use more than one language to stress their

self-identity or feelings to others in the conversation

4 Phatic function: code-switching is used to show a change in tone and emphasize

important parts of a conversation

5 Metalinguistic function: Bilinguals sometimes code-switch in order to comment

on another language In other words, this function is most marked when the speaker

or writer quotes words, phrases or sentences in another language in order to preserve the original meanings and senses of the quotations

6 Poetic function: Words, puns, and jokes in one language are switched to another

language for the purpose of amusement or entertainment

Discussing the sociolinguistics of code-switching, Gumperz (1982, p 144) lists examples of situations created to convey meaning as given below:

- to appeal to the literate

- to appeal to the illiterate

- to convey precise meaning

- to ease communication, i.e., utilizing the shortest and the easiest route

- to negotiate with greater authority

- to capture attention, i.e stylistic, emphatic, emotional

- to emphasize a point

- to communicate more effectively

- to identify with a particular group

- to close the status gap

From the perspective of sociolinguistics, Malik (1994) explained ten reasons for speakers to code-switch:

1 Lack of facility: When certain concepts in a language do not exist in another,

bilinguals switch code to express themselves and avoid unnecessary misunderstanding and loss of intended meaning as well

2 Lack of registral competence: Bilinguals choose to codeswitch when they find it

hard to choose appropriate words in the target language for specific topics Moreover, they may not be equally competent in the two languages

3 Mood of the speaker: When bilinguals are in different moods such as tired, angry,

or nervous, they may employ the practice of code-switching Even if the intended words are available in the two languages, bilinguals still choose to code-switch when the ones in the other language seem to take less time and effort to be used

4 To amplify and emphasize a point: Speakers apply code-switching on selected

parts of a speech to make sure that listeners know what to focus on and highlight in situations

5 Habitual expressions: Code-switching also appears in fixed phrases of greetings,

partings, commands, requests, invitation, apologies and discourse markers

6 Semantic significance: Code-switching can deliver essential and meaningful

linguistic as well as social information Hence, listeners interpret code-switching as

an indicator of the speaker‟s communicative intents, emotions and attitude

7 To show identity with a group: To people of a same group or culture,

code-switching is used to signify shared values and experiences As a result, words and phrases are kept in their original languages to express a sense of familiarity and

belonging to the group

8 To address different audience: When targeted to different listeners or recipients,

different languages are used to convey messages, just similar to Gumperz‟s (1982) addressee specification,

9 Pragmatic reasons: Sometimes, code-switching depends on the context of a

conversation or other factors such as formality, participants and location where a conversation takes place Thus, code-switching may portray a varying degree of speakers‟ involvement

10 To attract attention: Usually, when two or more languages are used in the media

or advertisements, audiences are more attracted to the language that they are familiar with first

Although a variety of functions of and reasons for code-switching have been suggested by many linguists, ten reasons described by Malik (1994) appear to be most succinct yet comprehensive In the context of this study, where participants are asked to give reasons for their code-switching, ten reasons proposed by Malik (1994) will be employed as the theoretical framework in analyzing the collected data for their comprehensiveness and intelligibility to readers

2.1.3 Code switching and code mixing

The distinction between code-switching and code-mixing is one of the most intriguing issues in the study of code alternation Clyne (1991, p.161) argues that

code-switching and code-mixing refer to the same phenomena in which “speaker stops using language „A‟ and employs language „B‟” Other researchers, however,

attempt to distinguish between code-switching and code-mixing One approach investigating this issue from a grammatical perspective is to base on the place where the alternation takes place According to Wei (1998), if code alternation occurs at

or above clause level, it is considered code-switching, but if it occurs below clause level then it is called code-mixing

Following the same approach, Muysken (2000) uses the term “code-mixing” to refer to “all cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence” (p.1), which he calls “intra-sentential code-mixing” He reserves the term “code-switching” for “the rapid succession of several languages in

a single speech event” Similarly, Bhatia and Ritchie (2004) concedes that

code-mixing refers to the code-mixing of various linguistic units (morphemes, words, modifiers, phrases, clauses and sentences) primarily from two participating grammatical systems within a sentence It can be inferred from the similarity in the three definitions by Wei, Muysken and Bhatia and Ritchie that the phenomenon of code-mixing occurs within a sentence, which leaves the inter-sentential places for code-switching

The view of Poplack (1979/1981) bears little resemblance to the above-mentioned ones Poplack only uses the term “code-switching” for all cases of code alternation, which can exist below, at, or above sentence level More about this idea shall be discussed in the next section

While the first approach rests on the point of code alternation as a criterion to distinguish between code-switching and code-mixing, the second one viewing this from a sociolinguistic perspective is more concerned with extra-linguistic factors For example, Hudson (1996, p 53) says that in code-switching, “the point at which the languages change corresponds to a point where the situation changes, either on its own or precisely because the language changes.” Conversely, he views code-mixing as a case “where a fluent bilingual talking to another fluent bilingual changes language without any change at all in the situation.”, and gives it the name

of “conversational code-switching”, which he finds “a rather unhelpful name” Obviously, Hudson bases his distinction on the speakers‟ code choice according to changes in situation, which sounds fairly abstract, since the notion of “situation” and “situational changes” need further clarification What are factors determining a situation and what are possible situational changes that may affect one bilingual‟s code choice?

Another extra-linguistic factor used to differentiate switching from mixing is suggested by Holmes (2008, p 43) She argues that code-mixing suggests

code-“the speaker is mixing up codes indiscriminately or perhaps because of incompetence”, whereas code-switching should be identified as rapid switching in which “switches are very well motivated in relation to the symbolic or social meanings of the two codes” She recommends the name “metaphorical switching” for the latter phenomenon Accordingly, what Holmes uses as criterion of

distinction is speaker-related factors, such as intention or language competence Again, this viewpoint is not without weakness, mainly because speaker‟s intention

or language competence is something that cannot be examined easily Even a bilingual with limited language proficiency can still rapidly code-switch with an implication

Consequent to the discussion of two approaches to distinguishing code-switching and code-mixing, it can be concluded that the first one using point of code alternation as criterion is more clear-cut and is likely to work in examining conversations Thus, it is the first approach that this study will follow, and the theory by Poplack (1979/1981) will be used as the framework to identify tokens of code-switching in the study In other word, this study will use the term code-switching to refer to both code-switching and code-mixing, while the three terms intra-sentential code-switching, inter-sentential code-switching and extra-sentential code-switching are adopted to determine the types of code-switching

2.1.4 Code-switching and lexical borrowing

As regard the definition of borrowing, Hamers and Blanc (2000, p 259) considers borrowing as “the adaptation of lexical material to the morphological, syntactic and, usually (but not always), phonological patterns of the recipient language” Sharing this view, Myers-Scotton (2002, p 234) describes borrowing as an adoption of a linguistic feature previously used in another, and also calls borrowing “loan words” Many researchers suggest that code-switching and borrowing are not completely different For instance, Romaine (1994, as cited in Hamers and Blanc, 2000, p 259) suggests that: “Borrowings may look like code-switches in that they retain a foreign status (especially in phonology), while code-switches often resemble borrowings in brevity and in being fitted into the syntax of another language.”

However, these two language contacts are often viewed as distinct phenomena thinks we can base on the level of the destination where these phenomena take place According to Hudson (1996, p 55), whereas code-mixing and code-switching involve “mixing language in speech”, borrowing involves “mixing the systems themselves, because an item is „borrowed‟ from one language to become part of the other language.” Myers-Scotton (2002) views each as placed at the opposite ends of

a continuum based on frequency of use She suggests that borrowings are highly frequent items while switches are relatively infrequent, although the dividing line between the two is arbitrary This means that borrowed words tend to be used in a variety of conversations but code-switching words may occur only once and not in other discourses

Holmes (2008, p 43) distinguishes code-switching from borrowing in two aspects The first one is that “Borrowing…generally involves single words - mainly nouns- and is motivated by lexical need It is very different from switching where speakers have a genuine choice about which words or phrases they will use in which language.” This distinction focuses on the motivations behind borrowing and code-switching, and the linguistic items occurring in each phenomenon The second criterion bases on form: “Borrowed words are usually adapted to the speaker‟s first language…pronounced and used grammatically as if they were part of the first speaker‟s language… By contrast, people who are rapidly code-switching…tend to switch completely between two linguistic systems –sounds, grammar, and vocabulary”

In short, this study bases on Myers-Scotton (2002)‟s views regarding the frequency

of use to differentiate these two phenomena As a result, cases of lexical borrowing are not taken into account

2.2 Linguistic constraints on code-switching

A growing number of code-switching studies have dealt with the linguistic factors that operate to constraint code-switching (Gumperz 1976; Plaff 1976, 1979; Poplack

1980, 1981) From these studies, some general linguistic constraints have emerged, which have been explained as follows

The first one called equivalence constraint and suggested by Poplack (1980) can be

stated most simply in this way: “Surface structures common to both languages are favored for switches” (Plaff, 1979, p 314) The principle is explained more comprehensively by Poplack (1980, p 586):

Code-switches will tend to occur at points in discourse where juxtaposition

of L1 and L2 elements does not violate a syntactic rule of either language, i.e., at points around which the surface structures of the two languages map

onto each other According to this simple constraint, a switch is inhibited from occurring within a constituent generated by a rule from one language which is not shared by the other

In other words, in the case of intra-sentential code-switching, switches only occur within sentences at points where the grammars of both languages match each other Therefore, you may switch between an adjective and a noun, or between a verb and

an object, if both languages use the same order for these elements

Furthermore, the size-of-constituent constraint says that higher-level constituents

like sentences or clauses tend to be switched more frequently than lower-level ones, which are one-word categories such as nouns, verbs, determiners, adverbs, adjectives) (Gumperz & Hemrnndez-Chaivez 1975; Poplack 1980) The one regularly found exception to this constraint is the category of noun Below the sentence level, nouns consistently have been found to account for the greatest number of switches (Pfaff 1979; Poplack 1980, 1981)

The third linguistic constraint on code-switching, the free morpheme constraint,

states that code-switching is prohibited between a free and a bound morpheme In Poplack‟s (1980) terms, “Codes may be switched after any constituent in discourse provided that constituent is not a bound morpheme.” To be more specific, an item such as *EAT-iendo „eating, which consists of a Spanish bound morpheme –iendo

„ing‟ affixed onto an English root „eat‟, could not occur in the speech of a Spanish/English bilingual (Berk-Seligson, 1986), “unless one of the morphemes has been integrated phonologically into the language of the other” (Poplack, 1980), that

is, unless the word has attained the status of a borrowing In a word, the morpheme constraint would be best defined as the “impossibility of code-switching

free-at a point of morpheme binding” (Berk-Seligson, 1986)

However, from sociolinguistic point of view, many scholars claim that it is unlikely that there are universal and absolute rules as such It is more likely that these rules simply reflect the limited data which have been examined so far These sociolinguists argue for greater attention to social, stylistic and contextual factors The points at which people switch codes are likely to vary according to many different factors such as which codes are involved, the functions of the particular

switch, and the level of proficiency in each code of the people switching Thus, it is suggested that intra-sentential code-switching will only occur among very proficient bilinguals, whereas inter-sentential switching, short fixed phrases or tags in one language at sentence-ends in the other language tend to be used more frequently by less proficient ones (Holmes, 2008)

Controversial as these issues may seem, it is generally acknowledged that the linguistic constraints on code-switching discussed above have provided a conceptual framework for studies in language mixing, especially for those aiming to find out tokens of code-switching Therefore, this research paper also makes full use

of these constraints to determine switches and non-switches among the data

2.3 Bilingualism

Bilingualism is a concept often associated with code-switching as a speaker must be able to perform more than a language in order to code switch In other words, a bilingual speaker is the person who can communicate in more than one language According to Spolsky (1998, p 45), when people “develop some knowledge and ability in a second language”, they become bilingual He continues defining a

bilingual: “The simplest definition of a bilingual is a person who has some functional ability in second language This may vary from a limited ability in one or more domains, to very strong command of both languages (which is sometimes

called balanced bilingualism).” (Spolsky, 1998, p 45)

In Spolsky‟s view, as long as a person can communicate in a second language, he or she is considered “bilingual”, regardless of his or her proficiency level in that language In contrast, Bloomfield (1933) broadly defined bilingualism as the

“native-like control of two languages.” The definition raised some questions on the degree of mastery or competency of a speaker in the languages in order to be considered to have native-like control Haugen (1953) further explained that bilingualism only exists when a speaker of one language has the ability to produce complete meaningful utterances in another language

2.4 Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is the study between language and society, of language variation, and of attitudes about language In other words, it is a branch of both linguistics and

sociology In An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (2013), Rubén Chacón-Beltrán

observes that in sociolinguistics "the stress is placed on language and its role within communication The basic notion underlying sociolinguistics is quite simple: Language use symbolically represents fundamental dimensions of social behavior and human interaction The notion is simple, but the ways in which language reflects behavior can often be complex and subtle Furthermore, the relationship between language and society affects a wide range of encounters from broadly based international relations to narrowly defined interpersonal relationships

2.5 Facebook

Facebook is a social network website that provides an extensive number of features for its users to socialize and share information about themselves Users can sign up

on the website with a valid e-mail address and create a profile page, allowing them

to keep updated with friends‟ social activities, upload photos, share links and videos and connect with people In January 2011, the network was estimated to have more than 600 million monthly active users worldwide (Carlson, 2011) One of the main features is the News Feed where users can publish and share their status updates with users in their network The status updates posted on users‟ profiles pages will then available to be replied or commented on at any time by other users Moreover, Vietnam is considered the country which has the highest growing rate (146%) of Facebook users within six months of 2012 and Facebook is also the most popular SNS in this country, which intensified the significance of the study which aims to investigate the code-switching phenomenon on Facebook pages of English-Vietnamese bilinguals

“The nature of the written language is the medium and slower sentence-planning

environment with the construction of longer sentences in comparison with speech.”

(Huddleston & Pullum, 2002, p.13)

Noticeably, non-verbal communication provides bilinguals with different conditions

for code-switching The mediated nature of online conversations allows bilinguals

the time and opportunity to edit the content before publicizing; a feature that is not

available in verbal interaction as conversation is spontaneous

B-PREVIOUS STUDIES

Vietnam is not a multiracial country and the language mostly used in daily

communication is mainly Vietnamese Besides, English-Vietnamese bilinguals in

our nation only account for a small number and are usually subordinate bilinguals

Subordinate bilingualism is a type of mediated bilingualism where the lexical and

conceptual representations of a speaker‟s first language play a role in facilitating the

lexical representations of a speaker‟s second language Dominant in the first

language, meanings and concepts in the second language are understood with the

help of words in the first language In other words, we can say that

English-Vietnamese bilingualism stems from formal education In the past few years, there

have been a number of papers relating to the matter in spoken as well as in written

form However, with the outburst of Facebook today, there left many gaps to fill in

terms of code-switching practice on social networking sites in Vietnam but there are

some research concerning this practice in multiracial countries such as America,

Malaysia, Singapore and Korea as follows:

1 Ignoring the types of code-switching, Choy Wai Fong (2011) focused only

on investigating the functions and reasons for code switching on Facebook by Utar

English-Mandarin Chinese bilingual undergraduates In Choi‟s paper, Appel and

Muysken‟s (2006) six functions of code-switching for spoken discourse and Malik‟s

(1994) review on ten reasons for code-switching were used to discuss the

occurrences of code-switching in online communication As regards to participants,

the number of female participants outnumbered that of males, with 31 out of the

total 38 participants They are aged between 21 to 25 years old and currently in their

final semester of different majors in their studies such as Public Relations,

Advertising, Broadcasting, Psychology and English Language from Petaling Jaya and Kampar campus As for data collected, 80 messages dated between September

2010 and February 2011 were collected by the researcher through participants‟ profile pages based on participants‟ activity on the website and the occurrence of code-switching in the specified languages, English and Mandarin Chinese but only

63 messages were analyzed On average, each participant had nearly two switched messages in a 5-month period, which is insufficient, thus may lead to unreliability In addition, unlike this study, data in Choy Wai Fong‟s research was analyzed qualitatively and not calculated and tabulated

code-However, the findings of this study would be compared to those of Choi Wai Fong

in the sense that code-switching does occur in online written discourse with the functions and reasons similar to those of verbal communication Specifically, out of the six functions of code-switching proposed by Appel and Muysken (2006), five functions which can be used to categorize the occurrence of code-switching in online written discourse are the referential function, expressive function, meta-linguistic function, directive function and phatic function For Malik‟s (1994) ten reasons for code-switching, seven of which can be used to explain the phenomenon

of code-switching which are lack of facility, lack of registral competence, habitual expressions, to amplify and emphasize a point, mood of the speaker, to show identity with a group and to address different audience

2 This study also bears much resemblance to that of Katrin Urbäck (2007), which investigated on Swedish-English code-switching in a bilingual online discussion forum called Motheringdotcommune (MDC), a form of asynchronous CMC A total of seven participants of American, Swedish and Canadian nationality were selected based on their activity and language usage in the forum Data was obtained from a thread in the MDC discussion forum from the period of August

2003 until February 2007 The research aimed to find out whether Swedish speakers use English extensively in online communication and the reasons for using the language The research also examined the types of Swedish-English code-switching used by bilingual users in online communication and determined the most common

types of code-switching in the observed forum Using mixed method, data was first tabulated according to Romaine‟s (1989) and Klintborg‟s (1999) classifications of code-switching into tag-switching, intra-sentential and inter-sentential switching The findings showed that 14 out of 26 switches were intra-sentential while inter-sentential and tag-switching both occurred six times in the research material

Then, data was analyzed in detail to reveal the reasons for code-switching to occur Interestingly, English is a preferred language of communication in the online discussion forum for many reasons as some feel more comfortable with using English after spending long time in English-speaking countries, others feel more appropriate because the official language of MDC is English, and finally, many use English to show identity to the group

3 In the research “Code switching in social media TWITTER”, Riris Desnia Sihombing focused on the types of code switching and reasons why people code switch their language in social media Twitter The main aims are to discover contextual type and grammatical type of code switching which is mostly used in Twitter Descriptive qualitative method is used when conducting the research The way the data was collected is problematic and asynchronous Specifically, the primary data was collected by tweets from the timelines of 10 Twitter users from friend list of the writer‟s account during a week from February 21st to February 27th,

2014, while the secondary date was gained thanks to questionnaires distributed to

25 students of Faculty of Languages and Arts students in State University of Medan

on February 19th, 2014 to ask about the reasons for code switching Unlike other works on the same area, the result indicates that inter-sentential is the dominant type

of grammatical types used by Twitter users, followed by tag and intra-sentential code switching, respectively More importantly, the study reveals that there are eight reasons why people code switch in Twitter, and the most common reason is due to the lack of equivalent lexicon in the target language Unlike the findings of Riris Desnia Sihombing‟s research, this study sees the dominance of intra-sentential code switching and the most common reason is of habitual expression

Clearly, research on code-switching on social network sites have just had been conducted to find out what the most common type of code-switching is and

the general reasons for code-switching Few studies have a deep look on the specific reasons for each code-switched instance Besides, switched words and phrases have not been analyzed syntactically yet Therefore, this study was carried out to fulfill the gap Moreover, except for the work by Choi Wang Fong, papers on the topic of code-switching on Facebook have been limited in number This reality,

as clarified in the introduction, has constituted a good reason for the conduct of this study Moreover, the language pair and the corpuses for investigation in the three studies above are much different from those of this study With the same access to the method of collecting data, this study is an attempt to further the work of Katrin Urbäck in different context with different corpus

CHAPTER III.METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Hypothesis

Firstly, I inquire whether bilingual Facebook users would switch languages when posting comments and status on Facebook Subsequently, assuming that those individuals do code-switch, I attempt to explain how they employ the types of code-switching and the reasons why they code-switch Moreover, I intend to uncover the nature of code-switching from the perspective of sociolinguistics

3.2 Participants

This study was carried out on the author‟s Facebook News Feed Selective sampling method is employed by the researcher The participants are a cohort of ten people, three males and seven females, all of whom are friends in the author‟s friend list and are bilinguals who are able to express themselves fully in either language and regularly engaged in code-switching when communicating with the recipients The selection of participants is mainly based on the authentic relationship between them and the researcher The criteria used to choose the qualified participants are their formal education, profession, and more importantly, their formal qualifications relating to English and years of exposing to English-speaking environment As a matter of fact, three out of ten are high school students but they have been learning English with native speakers since their childhood Another five participants had at least two years studying in English-speaking countries such as America, Australia and England, and they are now working in Non-governmental sector, Environment and Banking & Finance Of the rest two respondents, one is working for an international cooperation and one has been living and working in Australia for 10 years now

The study was conducted only on Facebook pages of the participants To be more specific, only their comments and statuses are taken into account The subjects‟ ages ranged from 17 to 30 years old at the time of the study To protect participants‟ privacy, their names and Facebook accounts are anonymous Moreover, the purpose

of this research was explained to all participants and permission was sought through the messaging service available on Facebook before data was analyzed

3.3 Data corpus description

The primary source of this study is taken from participants‟ time line on Facebook where they can share information by posting status updates These status updates are available for other users to reply or comment on, but this research only analyzes the replies or comments of the subjects which attach to their code-switched statuses

in the corpus The topic of each entry varied due to the fact that the participants were of different careers, sexes and interests

These 316 entries contain 1033 instances of code-switching which include 134 inter-sentential, 32 extra-sentential and 867 intra-sentential code-switches

4 Methods of data collection

As mentioned above, the study is an effort to describe the nature of code switching

by people in the author‟s friends list, thus descriptive qualitative method seems to

be the most suitable methodology The study was conducted by means of participant observation and unstructured interview accompanied by a self-report form as two research instruments The information gained from interviews will be recorded, analyzed and used for reference in making recommendations to improve the quality

of the material

One of the main problems in producing reliable data for this type of sociolinguistic study is the high sensitivity of linguistic behavior to contextual features Obtaining data reflective of natural bilingual performance is exceedingly difficult per se, especially when dealing with a socially stigmatized linguistic phenomenon such as code-switching In this case, several status updates and comments exchanged

between Vietnamese-English bilingual speakers where code-switching took place were collected However, the subjects were not aware that their linguistic behavior would be analyzed Therefore, none of the data presented here are either prompted

or elicited in any way

The author decided to group both statuses and comments together under the assumption that they constitute a similar way of written interaction between bilingual individuals in social network It is worth mentioning that all of the statuses and comments are informal texts whose main purpose is to communicate or exchange ideas, rather than narrative passages

In order to answer the first research question, the code-switching instances were categorized into three types suggested by Poplack (1980), namely inter-sentential switching, extra-sentential switching (or tag switching), and intra-sentential switching Also, each instance of a switch was coded as to its syntactic function in the utterance Breakdown of switching according to Poplack‟s typology and by word classes were then tabulated That means before analyzing, all the cases of intra-sentential codes embedded are highlighted, recorded and then categorized into noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc as well as noun phrase, verb phrase, adverbial phrase, prepositional phrase and sentence Noticeably, nouns in the noun phrases

were not counted as noun For example, informant A (May 9, 2015) wrote: “Meat lovers đi ăn chay.” In this case, meat and lovers were not counted as two separate

nouns and analyzed as a noun phrase only The same principle was applied to other categories Also, the frequency of patterns is calculated to see which phenomenon is the most commonly used

So as to answer the second research question, an informal interview to each participant was carried out in form of a short chat through Facebook‟s message tool

In this interview, each participant was informed of the study; asked for permission

of using and analyzing his/her statuses and comments; as well as asked to give the general reasons why he/she usually code-switched on Facebook After the informants had given their answers or even if they had not come up with any reasons, they were provided with the list of reasons by Malik (the reasons were coded into number from one to ten) to decide which ones seemed right to them Finally, the self-report form with the list of code-switched statuses and comments that the participant posted on his/her Facebook site was sent to the owner In this self-report form, each case of code-switching was bolded, italicized, highlighted and numbered in order of appearance The participants were asked to give reasons for each numbered case by putting a tick on one reason from Malik‟s list or giving his/her own reason for every single case

It was assumed that different respondents would think of different situations and therefore give different reasons for their choice of code-switches if they were merely asked to list the general reasons Therefore, the self-report form enabled the informants to think about the actual reason for their context-specific code-switching instances Possible reasons according to Malik (1994) for code-switching were provided for the respondents‟ convenience and for the convenience of data analysis Besides, they can also give other reasons not including in Malik‟s(1994) list Apart from the title, introduction and definition of key terms, the main part of the self-report form consists of two columns The first column provided instances of code-switching that the recipient made are italicized, underlined and numbered in order

of appearance from one (01) The second column which was titled “Reasons for code-switching” was divided into columns so that participants could put a tick in the reason columns numbered 01 to 10 proposed by Malik (1994) If the informant might think of different reasons, they just needed to specify in the “other reasons” column

The self-report form is provided in Appendix A

Instances of code-switching were calculated according to the reasons for which they were uttered and subsequently presented in tables in descending percentage order

3.6 Methods of data analysis

The qualitative data obtained from interviews was synthesized and summarized based on the aims of the research which are also specified through the research questions The data obtained from the observation was calculated and transferred into numerical form All the answers to close-ended questions were analyzed and presented in forms of pie-chart, bar chart while the answers for open-ended questions were summarized according to the research questions The qualitative data obtained from interviews and self-report forms was synthesized and summarized based on the aims of the research which were also specified through the research questions

3.7 Procedure

Stage 1: Preparation

In this stage, the researcher had a look at all contacts in the friend list of her own Facebook account to classify and group friends The criteria for classification are based on formal qualifications and careers The research focused on people with qualifications or certificates which can prove their proficiency in English and those who studied abroad or are working with foreigners The researcher could easily decide who would be the appropriate subjects thanks to her relationship with the subjects because most of them are her former classmates, schoolmates, students, relatives and colleagues Then the author made a list of potential subjects After that, the researcher browsed all the subjects‟ wall to see if they often post statuses and comments containing factors of code-switching This process is really important and takes time Finally, a list of subjects was made

Stage 2: Data collection

First of all, the participants‟ Facebook pages were observed day by day All statuses and comments of code-switching were recorded and saved in separate document files named the subjects‟ accounts After asking for participants‟ permission to record and analyze their status updates and comments, the author recorded all the code-switched statuses and attached comments in the period of seven months In each transcript, instances of code-switching were highlighted and numbered in order

of appearance from one (01) The transcripts were then copied to self-report forms

Each status and its attached comments (if any) were grouped into the same entry After collecting pieces of comments or status which the participants code switched between English and Vietnamese, the researcher held unstructured interviews and a self-report form through private messaging service on Facebook The main aim was

to ask for the reasons why they code switch on Facebook in general and in each recorded case in particular

After that, with the collected findings, the researcher analyzed and synthesized all the data to find out the answer for the research questions

Stage 3: Data analysis

The data recorded were used to analyze the phenomena of code-switching used on Facebook by the participants The entire language phenomena collected through observation were grouped in order to make the analysis procedure easier The results were transcribed into charts, tables and diagrams

To answer the research questions, qualitative data was collected based on the occurrence of code-switching and then analyzed in terms of the types of code-switching commonly used and the reasons that they serve in the online written discourse Each example that was used for discussion was followed by an English translation while words, phrases or sentences that were switched would be underlined

3.8 Recapitulation

The purpose of this chapter is to give a clear depiction of how data was collected and analyzed Both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed in order to

find answers to the research questions First, all status updates and comments posted

on the subjects‟ wall were all recorded and analyzed to identify instances of switching, which then were grouped according to Poplack‟s theory (1980) This qualitative method was used to draw findings to the first and second research question concerning types of Vietnamese-English code-switching found in the recorded written language among Facebook users in the author‟s friend list

code-Next, short interviews would be held, followed by self-report forms in order to obtain participants‟ reflection on what caused them to code-switch Collected data were then calculated and grouped Employing the quantitative method at this stage,

the researcher sought to find out the answers to the last research questions on reasons for the participants‟ code-switching

In the following chapters, findings of the research will be provided and followed by further discussion and conclusion to the study

CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

The focus of this chapter is on the nature and frequency of code-switching in the corpus The chapter will be divided into five main sections Apart from the chapter introduction, the second and third sections serve to present the findings of data analysis to find the answers to the two research questions The fourth section provides a thorough discussion of the results Finally, a brief chapter summary will

The pie chart shows that intra-sentential code-switching accounts for approximately four fifths cases of code-switching, which serves to reinforce the common viewpoint that only very proficient bilinguals will switch within sentences (Holmes,

2008, p 46) In the second place, inter-sentential code switching takes up 13% of the detected cases The least common type of switching comes to extra-sentential, with only 3%

4.2.2 Estimation of instances of intra-sentential code-switching by syntactic category

Table 2 displays the distribution of the syntactic category of the intra-sentential tokens of code-switching

Table 2 Break down of intra-sentential code-switching by syntactic category

According to Table 2, the most frequent syntactic category of intra-sentential code-switches is the noun, with 46.1% of the total switches This finding is similar

to that of other studies regarding the switching of nouns In her study on English code-switching, Poplack (1980) reports that single nouns were most likely

Spanish-to be switched than other word classes Furthermore, when added Spanish-together, switched nouns and noun phrases in this study account for nearly 62% of the total switches

Another word class that is frequently involved in code-switching is the verb with 15.8% of the total switches, together with 4% of verb phrases and 1.5% of phrasal verb It is also noticeable that instances of switched adjectives make up 7.6% of the detected cases, followed by adverbs with nearly 2.3%

Together, preposition and prepositional phrase take up a small proposition, only 1.1% Accounting for only 5.8% in total, or fifty out of eight hundred sixty seven intra-sentential switched tokens, the other word classes such as interjection, sentence and exceptional cases are categorized into the same group titled “Others” and the specific figures are presented in the below table

Other word classes Number of cases Percentage

Table 3 Break down of other word classes

As can be seen in table 3, sentences occupy 1.6%, followed by interjection and rules violated cases, with the same percentage of 1.2% Vietnamese transcribed and special cases occur with almost the same frequency – 0.9%

Example for rules violated cases:

Informant G (Feb 21st, 2015): Đợt này bận quá, việc nhiều khiến ai cũng stress (G: Such busy time, too much work makes everyone stressed)

In the example above, the word stress should have been an adjective – stressed

In this study, cases of rules violation mean the wrong application of word forms Specifically, a noun may be used instead of an adjective or a verb This practice is not uncommon as Vietnamese is one of the languages in which adjectival meanings are expressed primarily by nouns or verbs (Dixon, 1997)

Example for Vietnamese transcribed cases:

Informant D (March 20, 2015): “Sau rất nhiều lần phải tuyển dụng, mình có 1 số

còm men vu vơ sau.”

(D: After a lot of recruitment, I have some following comments)

In this example, the original word “comment” changed itself to look like Vietnamese and was added tones so that it has the same pronunciation with English

Example for special cases:

Informant H (April 12, 2015): “U made my thứ7 night”

(H: You made my Saturday night)

Usually, English-Vietnamese bilinguals code from Vietnamese to English, but in the above example, the informant did the opposite thing, which makes this case special

Besides, special cases include instances where To-infinitive plays a role of a subject and a code-switched qualifier as in the following examples:

Eg: F (March 13, 2015): Tui hay ham vui, ai cho chi tui luôn hoan hô, no kêu ca!

(F: I usually indulge in pleasures; I appreciate being given things, no complaints!)

Eg: E (July 14, 2015): “To share and to be shared cho đời thanh thản.”

(E: To share and to be shared makes life peaceful.)

In short, unlike other studies on code-switching whose results show mainly cases of switched nouns, verbs, and adjectives, this study provides much greater diversity of syntactic category recorded That is of little surprise as people are free to express themselves on social networks

4.2.3 Description of intra-sentential code-switching by syntactic category

It should be noted here that the examples given below are extracted from the recorded status updates and comments; therefore they will serve as examples only

4.2.3.1 Nouns and noun phrases

When investigating the tokens of switched nouns and noun phrases, all the proper names, places, streets, building are excluded It is apparent from Table 3 that the incidence of code-switching to English nouns and noun phrases, which constitutes more than 60 percent of the total switches, is higher than that of any other syntactic categories

The majority of nouns and noun phrases switched are words which refer to participants‟ interests or career Different informants have a tendency to talk about different topics such as self, food, shopping, cosmetics, work, hanging-out and

pregnancy However, they all share some common words regarding social network terms The detected switched nouns and noun phrases can be generally grouped according to the same semantic categories as specified in the following table

Semantic

category

Nouns and noun phrases

Food Salmon, steak, fish, chips, burger, bacon, pub, beef, spinach,

sauce, base, thyme, rosemary, courses meal, beer pub, banana bread, meat lovers, lamb chop, olive oil, creamed spinach, tomato sauce, lunch, fixed price, Bucket list item No, tip, list, beer club, yellow wine, hardcore, shots, beans, tea, buffet

Travel tour, agent, visa, plan, Tibet Permit, bus, Book of the trip, day

tour, safari, road trip, tour, America, passport, valise, holder, postcards, bus

Shopping Sale, store, promotion, shopping, brands, department store, deal,

brands, shopaholic, size, fee, style, list, voucher

Cosmetics srub, serum, moisturize, tone, antioxidant x2, toner x2, serum

x5, skincare, moisturizer, tester, contraction, olive oil , sweet almond oil, hot girls, miracle water, serum advanced night repair, gift pack x2, gift set x2, set anti aging, full sizex2, advanced night repair, radiance set, travel size, Gift With Purchase, mini size, miracle water, travel set, fake, fav setting powder, beauty bloggers, powder face, makeup, lens, sample

Work career path, file templates, designer / agency, emails, mail, jobs,

sponsor, events, meetings, conferences, market, event, ceremony, guidelines, file, coaching, deadline, workshop, business, experience, team, Marketing, report, office, training, surveys, senior position

Pregnancy hicks, "birth plan, bomb stress, babycenter, headband,

Headbandx2,checklist, body, stress, training, bassinet, midwife x7, baby center, birth suite, 2nd stage, pain, pelvic pelvic floor