Tài liệu increasing the contribution of small scale fisheries to poverty alleviation ppt

Abstract “The objectives ofthis Technical Paper are to highlight the contribution that inland and coastal small-scale fisheries ean make to poverty alleviation and food security and to ‘

Increasing the contribution

of small-scale fisheries

to poverty alleviation and

food security

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481

Sat Gian te the cr oes to pepe sed fh POHERIRR

Increasing the contribution

University of East Anglia

Norwich, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Rome, 2007

fA0 FEhERIES

‘TECHNICAL PAPER

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Preparation of this document

‘A first draft ofthis document served asa background paper for the Expert Consultation

fon che Role of Small-scale Fisheries in Poverty Alleviation and Food Security, Rome,

Italy, 5-8 July 2004 ‘The Consultation was convened to advise on the contents of the

FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries No 10 Increasing the contribution

of small-scale fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security (FAO, 2005) The

Consultation recommended that, appropriately revised and elaborated, the background

paper be published in the FAO Fisheries Technical Paper series as a companion

document tothe Guidelines

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Abstract

“The objectives ofthis Technical Paper are to highlight the contribution that inland and coastal small-scale fisheries ean make to poverty alleviation and food security and to

‘ake practical suggestions on ways that this contefbution can be maximized

This paper is organized into three main sections The fist section discusses the concepts of povery, vulnerability and food security, and briefly outlines how these concepts have evolved in recent years within the field of fisheries (in line with the rest fof the development lterarure), The second section reviews the actual and potential contribution of small-sesle fisheries to paverty alleviation and food security Ie

‘lustrates, through use of examples, the role that small-scale fisheries ean play in

«conamic grawth at the national level and poverty alleviation and rural development 3t the local level The third and main section of the document discusses ways of increasing the contribution of small-scale fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security through sine main entry points First, the paper revisits conventional fisheries policies and legislation and makes suggestions on how those ean be made moze pro-poor Next, the paper emphasizes the importance of expacty building and highlights how cross-sectorsl fnterventions can greatly improve the livelihoods of fish-dependent communities The paper then proposes a series of broad pro-poor or pro-siall-scale fisheries principles, before disussing in greater detail three of dhe main management instruments adopted in fisheries () propery right approaches: i) co-management nd ii) protested areas The next two sub-scetions discuss markets and how to make them work forthe poor, and the important issue of pro-poor financing systems and subsidies The paper highlights she complexity ofthe issues and reflects the current debate on the ambiguous impacts of

‘markets and trade on poverty alleviation, The last sub-section examines the information, research agenda and communication strategies that are needed to complement of support other interventions and to ensure the contribution of small-scale fisheries tơ poverty alleviation and food security,

Béné, C3 Macfadyen, Ge Allison, EH

Increasing the contribution of small-scale fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No #81 Rome, FAO 2007 125p,

Fisheries development and background to the Code of Conduet

Lt Food and poverty 0 1.43 Food secutity atthe national or eafonal evel 8 {LiL Ditect and indirect contribution to food security 8

VÀ Food security tthe global sale 14

2 Contribution, role and importance of small-scale fisheries in poverty

2.1 The Code, smallscale fsheries and povert alleviation 15 2.2 Small-scale fisheries and poverty alleviation 15 72.2.1 Contibution of small scale fisheries to economic growth

2.22 Contribution of smalbscale fsherie te rural development

2.23 Contibution of smallacale fisheries to household poverty alleviation 21

23.1 Nutritional cont bution of fi to Toad acuity 28

24.1 The world fish supply and hs impact on Tah food weary 5

2.42 Contaibution of smai se fshers to faod secudty

aitbe natanalleel.tùe laue aftaBp 7 7 33

24.8 Dicect contribution atthe ndividuaUhousehold evel 3h

2a tndizertcontebution atthe indildualhousehald level ah

3 Enhancing the role of small-scale fisheries in contributing to poverty

3.3 Leaislation in support of the poor ry

133.2 Legislation in support of the poor “

433.3 Fisheries legislation to support smallcate Raheris a

3.3.4 Non-fiheries specific lelslation supporting smallscalefaheries aS

73.4.1 Human capacity development for poverty reduction 50

13.42" Need for appropriate funding 54

eae eda

3.5.2 Recognizing the rural povery context 56

1453 The multi-use nature af the esources

3/54 Improving the livelihoods of fishers through non-fshing niatives 57

3.56 Mitigating the impacts of other sectors through projects 5g

326.1 The Code, fisheries management and poverty 60

3.6.2 Fisheries management and poverty alleviation sĩ

20.2 Trends in macro-evel market reforms and their impacts 73

3.7.3 Emerging tends in fish trade and thei impacts on

3.84 The importance of credit and savings forthe small-scale sector 64

3.9 Appropriate information, research and communication systems 39

{2.1 Information issues and research provties identified inthe Code 9T

3.92 A need to reconsider information and research priorities in fisheries 93

43.9.4 A need to develop better communication aategis 0

395 Reeomrnendations on bidging research, ggly and acion 107

Appendix: Examples of national and international legal instruments

Ki ni.)

Fisheries, including the sposfi sue of vulnerability 2

5 Gonteibution of Fisheries to households eash Income (USS/houschold/ ve

in diferent parts ofthe Zamberi Basin, compared to other activites 2 Coping mechanisms used in fishing: related communities households

5 Vitamin A, caleium and iron content in small and Big fish [explo Ta

Bangladesh) por 105 g raw edible parts 3

3._ Tax generation ta the United Republic of Baaia g

{6 Nile perch production in Ugandan watery of Lake Vistoris 20

TỊ_ SmalL-setefhedes e3 sfety net set Tor the poor 5

12 Migration/resettlementn response to luctuating Take las B

15 The impact of HIV/AIDS in ishing communities and potential

Tmpacts on the small-seale fishery sector 3 14_Hurricane preparedness for the fisheries sector inthe Carbbee han: — 3Ã

17 The extent of policy objectives supporting small-scale Raherice 3

1 Taegrating fish ito the draft National Food Security and

19_Examples of how user confer fs deal with 3

20_Legislation in support of community-based fisheries management (CBEM) 46

21 Legislation on industrial fishing impacting on small-scale fisheries 7

22 Local bylaws for management of Lake George Fisheries, Uganda 7

25 Legislation eelating to migrntion and welfare/social rights 8

24 Fishers and the social welfare system in Brazil 49

35 Decentralization and fisheries management indonesia 31

24 Examples of small-sesle management organizations benefiting small-seale

27_Did political organization in Kerala benefit poor fishers? Se

228 Retention of funds inthe fisheries sector in the SADC region 5

129 “The plight of fishing communities in urban areas: the case of Chennai,

30_Mangrove degradation impacting coastal small-scale ishing communities 38

31 The impact of irrigation schemes on taland fisheries 38

35_A community-led mangrove rehabilitation prose 6i Sa: Progeny thikcbsslisieee treec=esiSsiLSEieii—&

35 Community property rights as a way to improve fishers" livelihoods 65

367 Co-management and empowerment of the poor 66

37 Supporting co-management through appropriate legslation 7 {38 The ecological mechanisms of marine protected areas (MPAS) 78

$30 1avelvemen ofthe fishers i management planning and action plan

through Technology of Participation (ToP] methodology a 41_ Integrating ecological social and economic criteria in wade-o anal 2

39 The Lsún Ameriean Netvork of Women of the Enbinpand Aquaeulare

=“

$2 Tse a sshsidiessn Se Lanka and atheemauneiee

48_The example of the South Indian Federation of Fishermen Sociedes 87 49” Microfinance programmes in India and the Philippines 8

50 Social security nets for marine fisheries in Kerala, India 30

51 Tie ise of underestimates in small-scale inland Gshesses 3]

53 Th Fishery Information Monitoring System: the successful example of the

53_ Methodology to evaluate poversy the poverty profile 95

54 Understanding poverty i fishing communities % 55_ The example of the Community-based Fisheries Management (CEFN)

56 Changes in fisheries research in Bangladeshi univers 35

57 New approaches to participation in fisheries research 3

58 Gendered analyse of technological change in Indian fishing communities 1D)

59 The economic importance of products extracted from Amazonian

Acknowledgements

A draft version of the document was discussed at che Expert Consultation om the Role

‘of Small-seale Fisheries in Poxerty Alleviation and Food Security, Rome, ely 5-8 July

2004 Comments and suggestions made during the Consultation were subsequently somddered when tnalizing the document The authors hereby acknowledge the jrmportant contribution of all those participating in the Conseleation, In addition to the authors, the participants in the Consultation were: Hans Bage, Claudia Stella Beltein, William Emerson, Angel Gumy, Benoit Horemans, Helga Josupeit, Mowsthaphs Kebs, Aphichoke Kotikula, Baise Kuemlangan, John Kurien, Audun Lem, Ousmane Ndiay Francisco Pereita, Fabio Piualuga, Eric Reynolds, Chandrika Sharma, Andrew Smith, Derek Suples, Somony Thay, Uwe Tietze, Philip Townsley, Benedict Saia, lich: Schmide, Hiromoro Watanabe and Rolf Willman Special thanks go to Chandrika,

‘Sharma ind other staff ofthe International Collective in Support of Fisworkers (CSP, and Claudia Stella Beltin (Corporacidn Andina para el Desaeeollo del Medio Ambiente,

la Pesca y Is Acwiultsrs, Colombia), who provide text fora number of boxes in this

“Technics! Paper

Acronyms and abbreviations

‘corporate social responsibility Development Action Committee (of OECD) Economie Community of West African States Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Fishery Information Monicoring System

food securiey human immunodeficiency virus gross domestic product

generalized system of preferences ilegal, unreported and unregulated (Fishing) Lake Chad Basin

low-income food-defsi country monitoring, contol and surveillance marine protected area

non-governmental organization Organisation for Beonomie Co-operation and Development

poverty prevention poverty eduction participatory rural appraisal Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Southern African Development Community

‘Sustainable Fisheries Livelihoods Programme self-help group,

Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade

United Nations Development Progeamme World Trade Organization

ty th international community to these Ives en the Milenivn Devlopment Gals The paper served acount document forse Expert Consaton onthe Role of Smale Fisheries in Poverty Alleviation and Food Security (58 July 2004, FAO, Rome, iy The Coneliadon wax convened to avis onthe development of flees on his ope within the Cde of Conduct for Response Fhe technica fukelies serie The prparion of che guidlines was mandated by COFTI and they wer publi in 2003 FAO 203) “Ths document ive intr min eclone Afe ddrjn sual se fahedex

in the const ef developing counts theft scion dace the concepts of oven, vlerailty and feøl eodg;anl báchy oudines how tte concept have Evolved in ce yeas within the interestionsl community and subsequent in the fai of fihei, "The secon provides an overleyathesi ofthe difeen dimensions

di peveng lviaon in relation to sale fiber, nling the sei ue

of floes, and highligh the diferent vl of oxcurence of fod ines Bailing on ths conceptual framework the second scion cones the Atal ad Denial anaibuien of salsa ers vo poverty alleviation and fod scy Teilstrtes though conrete examples the role that smallacle Rares ean playin tconomic pownh tthe sarceal level and to poveny sleraion and ral development

St the lod! level trough mechanisms such income snd employment mpi

‘Say net mechani ad coping eae

The third and main section of the document discuss ways of increasing the contribution of smal-sale fisheries vo poverty alleviation and food secur through

‘arious entry pons The fs two etry points consdeed ar polices snd lglion inthe dona the paper rifly revs convronal here pies snd legion, tnd dncusses thm in telion fo poverty alleviation and food seca This pare of ibs report ao highlights how nơneeeterlrgnladen (eE Iegisdon on mipxion

tr worker’ rights) nonacea poiyfemeworks (uch as nad! Povey Reduction Satepy Plane in each country) can ave pose impact and how they

an regen the conurbation of smallest poverty alleviation ad ood

‘Sou hefllowing section considers two gence impleenaton eet ~ Haran

‘Spacydevlopment td spproprat lvl of nding to suppor the secer~ which tribout proper smediem te Láng lơ preven the costal implementation of the recommendations made thoughout the paper The paper then highlights the need for cow-secora Interventions and iakes some recommendations on arst of Feauired costco ineratin and how ofa such coordinated planing and implement,

"Nene i the important sub-section on heres management in which brosdpro- poor ot po-tmal cee fers principles are ft proposed, before srsng to amore

Aensled discussion on thre ofthe main management instruments increasingly adopted in the world fisheries: ) property right approaches; i) co-management ~as 3 governance reform; and (i) protected are3s ~ a6 4 tool to control access For each of these, the paper briefly discusses some ofthe limitations of these tools from 3 poverty alleviation perspective The next two subsections discuss markets and making them work for the poor, and the important issue of pro-poor financing systems (micro-credit, subsidies, te) The paper highlights the complesty of the isues and reflects the current dehare fon the impact of markets and sade on poverty alleviation Ie is recognized tha there are

“winners” andl “losers” from bath domestic and intenational nh trai, skhongh the poorest ~ who remain generally excluded from well-functioning marker instrutions ~

ae sll curently likely to be among the losers Ths debate rinlorces the importance of

‘cto-credit schemes forthe poor and raises the question of the conditions ner which subsidies may ot may not be used to support poverty alleviation progeammes The last subsection examines the information, research agenda and communication strategies that are needed to contribute to increasing the conteibution of small-scale fisheries

to poverty alleviation and food security, A re-orientation of monitoring and research programmes towards more participatory approaches and better integration of social Science and indigenous knowledge systems is proposed

Overall, the document provides 2 synthesis of a key emerging policy agends is fisheries that seks to place fisheries management in the context of wider development and natuel resource management contexts, The importance af small-scale fisheries at tlobal level is emphasized, together withthe need to address poverty alleviation as past

of responsible fisheries,

Since ancient times, fishing has been a major source of food for humanity and a provider

‘of employment and economic benefits, However there have been huge changes in the fisheries sector over the last $9 year, iitlly 36a result of fisheries development with

a steong emphasis on owt in production Increases in caches resulted from a strong, focus on industralzing and modernizing fishing flets, But small-scale fisheries also played thei par in rising production levels, enabled by developments in fishing gear and motorization, which increased the distance many small-scale fishers can operate from theis home landing-sices

‘Although Fishing is sill an important clement of locally based esonomies for a large number of houschalds across the developing world, fisheries have hecame an increasingly dynamic sector of the world food industry, with many sates striving :0 take advantage ofthe new opportunities cha the sector presents in response to growing Ingernationsl demand for fish 2nd fishery produets Again, the sain emphasis has heen fom export-led growh from industrial fishing, bur amall-scale fisheries are playing an increasingly impoetant role in the exports of some countries,

‘With improved knowledge of the impacts of such changes on fish stocks, it has bocome increasingly clear, however, that ving aquatic resources, although renewable, ate not ifinite and need 10 be propedy managed if thei contribution to the eutritional,

‘conomie and social well-being of the growing word's population is co be sustained (Over the hst two decades, there has therefore been significant shift away from the production growth approach in the fisheries sector cowards effore aimed at improved fisheries management,

In response ra these trends, the Nineteenth Session of the FAO Commistee on Fisheries (COT), held in Masch 1991 stessed an urgent need for new approaches

to fisheries management that embraced both environmental conservation and social and economic considerations FAQ was atked to develop the concept of responsible Fisheries and to elaborate a code of conduct to foster its application

The development af the Cade of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (the Code} was subsequently carried out by FAO in cansultation and collaboration with relevant

UN Agencies and other international organizations, inchiding, non-governmental

‘organizations (NGOs), The Twenty-cighth Session of the FAO Conference adopted the Cade on 31 October 1995 in Resolution 4/95 (FAO, 1995) The same Resolution requested FAQ inter alist elaborate, as appropriate, a series of tchnisal guidelines in support ofthe implementation ofthe Cade in collaboration with members and relevant interested organizations

The Code, which is voluntary, consists of five inteoductory: Artcless Nature and Scope; Objective; Relationship with Other tnternational instruments; Implementation, Monitoring and Updating, and Spevial Requirements of Developing Counties These inteoductory articles ae followed by an Article on General Principles, which precedes six thematic articles on Fisheties Management, Fishing Operations, Aquaculere Development, Integration of Fisheves into Coastal Area Management, Post-Harvest Practices and Trade, and Fisheries Research,

ncreasng the conribatin of alll fibre to over leona fond eurty

Small-scale fisheries

‘Around 90 percent of the 38 million people recorded globally as fishers ae elated

as small-scale, and sn additional more than 100 milion people are estimated to be

‘involved in the small-scale post-harvest sector In addition, chee ae millions of other ural dwellers involved in seasonal or occasional fishing activities who are not recorded

as “fishers” in official statisti Women are heavily involved in processing and trade

of fish and fish products from small-scale sheries When numbers of fishers and fishworkers ace combined with those invalved in setivties supplying inpots vo fishing and postharvest activities, and their hovsehold dependent, itis Ike chat several hundred million people worldmvide depend in some parton small-scale fisheries tor their livelihoods Many millions of these, especialy in Asia and Africa, live in remote rural areas, where there are few other sources of akernatve income and employment offering significant potendal so contibute to livelibood strategies

[Nutritionally ish is often an important source of dietary protein, especially where other sources of animal protein ae scare oF expensive Milhons of the worll’s poor

je rural and ueban areas depend on fish, much of it from small-scale fisheries, 35 am essential source of protein and mieronutrents Fish provides 19 percent of the protein intake in developing countries, a share that can exceed 25 percent in the poorest counties and ceach 99 peccent in isolated parts of coastal or inland areas and in small island developing sates

While thee i often very little precise information om the real contribution of small scale fisheries so Ivehoods and economies in developing countries, and although many small-scale fishing communities are poor and vulnerable, it is now widely acknossledged that small-seale fisheries can generate significant peoits, prove resilient

to shocks and crises, and make meaningful contributions to poverty alleviation 3 food security in partieular for

those involved diretly with Gshing (fishers, and fshowor

postcharvest activities:

1+ the dependents of those involved directly with fishing (fishing-reated households and communities,

‘+ those who buy fish for human consumption (consumers)

‘+ those who benefit rom related income and employment through multiplier fects;

‘national societies in general and those who benefic indirectly as a result of national expoet revenues fom fisheries, redistributive taxation and other macro-level mechanisms

In addition, while itis true that small-scale fisheries can overexploic stacks, harm the environment and may generate only marginal profit levels, i is now recognized chat

in many cases, smallscle fisheries may have significant comparative advantages over industrial Fisheries such as

* greater economic efficiency

+ fewer negative impacte on the environment,

+ the abiliy to share economic and social benefits more widely by being Aecenvalized and geographically spread ous,

+ thất coneribution to cultural heritage, including environmental knowledge,

Recent international developments and commitments

Incecent years there have been significant international developments and commitments related to both poverty reduction and food security, as wells greater recognition ofthe Importance and potential of small-scale fisheries,

‘The level of poverty remains high, sot justin small-scale fishing communities, but also in developing countries in general! While economic growth has helped to reduce

al ore than on blo pope ar cima 0 be ving o ethan one dl dy 70 percent shih worlds pur se women

troduction

the number of poor people ia the world, the positive impacts of growth on poverty have been less than expected, partially because of inequitable distribusion of the benefits, population increases, political instability, and in some paets ofthe worl, the devastating effects of the HIV/AIDS epidemic As result, there as been a re-focusing fan powerty by many NGOs, academies, development practitioners, governments and done agencies, for example in the form of national poverty reduction statepies

“The United Nations (UN) World Summit on Sostainable Development 2202, the

2000 World Development Report published by the World Bank, the UN Millennium Decleration adopted in 2029, and the 1996 UN World Food Surumit all considered poverty alleviation a8 2 centel priosty

“The re-examination of poverty alleviation strategies is also motivated by broadening the poverty concept, better understanding the causes of poverty, and tecognizing the importance of vulnerability Taken together, this means tat new strategies lor poverty alleviation are required

‘While past development interventions in small-scale fisheries were often implicitly sisal at reducing poverty, most were not explicitly focused on impraving the living conditions of the poor; rather, they aimed to aceclerate economic growth through technology and infraseructure development and throwgh market led economic policies

‘The lack ofan explicit focus on poverty and the inequitable distributional impacts of development programmes may explain the ineffctiveness of many tshery development With regard so food security, the predicted vises in global population, and corresponding increases in demand for food and fish mean that many’ of the food Sccurity problemts present today are likely to persist? The effects of the imbalance between supply and demand are no likey to be evenly felt across the world, need, While many countries and regions have made considerable progress in reducing food energy defiiencies, many others, notably in sub-Saharan Africa, have cither experienced

2 worsening of food security or have only managed to display improvements throxgh

a greater reliance on food imports from developed couneres At the Inernational Conference om the Sustainable Costribution of Fish to Food Security Kyoto, Japan,

49 December 1995 held in Kyoto, Japan in 1995, she 98 participating states approved

2 Declaration and a Plan of Action to enhance the contribution of fisheries to human food supply, The 1996 World Food Summit stessed the connection berween food security and che need for sustainable management of natural sesources The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development also locused on food security 283 key issue and

‘sterzed global commitment to responsible fisheries

Implications of recent developments for the Code

Although one of the objectives of the Code (Ar 2, para £) i tor “[plromote the contribution of fisheries to food security and food quality giving priority to the

‘utritional needs of local communities, the Code's objectives do not specifically refer to poverty alleviation or to the role that small-scale fisheries can play towards alleviating poverty and ensuring food security 1 light of the developments discussed above and the potential contribution by small-scale fisheries, the Twenty-fith Session

ff the Committee on Fisheries, (Rome, 24-28 February, 2008) welcomed the suggestion that FAO elaborate, inthe eontext of the Code, techaical guidelines for inereasing the contribution of small-scale fisheries to food security and poverty alleviation,

Tn light of the developments siscussed above and the potential coatribution by small-scale fisheries, the Twenty-fifth Session of the Committee on Fisheries, (Rome,

ter population whee omer than one della ay

> Eons fgg at 00 lon people baby renin asia underourise

she propor of he

Inesing the contrbution of small eae fisheries to poverty aleviation and fn seca

124-28 February, 2003) welcomed the suggestion that FAO elaborate inthe context of the Code, technical guideline fr increasing the contribution of small-scale fisheries to food security and poverty allesiation,

“This suggestion reflects FAO's recognition that small-scale fisheries have not been given due atention, and that chere is an urgent need for guidelines to provide information on some important concepts conerete examples of the extent to which small-scale fisheries can impact positively on the livelihoods of people and the economies of developing countries, and to suggest how these postive impacts can be increased,

‘This Technical Paper was prepared as a background document for an Expert Consultation on the Role of Small-scale Fisheries in Poverty Alleviation and Food Security (Rome, 5-8 July 2068) Ie encompasses both marine and inland fisheries and

is a companion document to the FAO Fisheries Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries No 10 Increasing the Contribution of Small-Scale Fisheries to Poverty Alleviation and Food Security (FAO 20054) The guidelines and companion technical paper complement several existing FAO Fisheries Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries, especially those dealing with sheries management, ecosystem spproách tơ fisheries, inland fisheries and aquaculture development (FAO 2005; FAO 199735 FAO 19976; FAO 1997e)

‘OBJECTIVES OF THE TECHNICAL PAPER

‘This Techaical Paper is primarily intended to

‘+ support a special focus on small-scale fisheries:

+ elaborate upon the Code with respect to small-scale fisheries, and especially

‘on poverty and food security issues in ight of the developments and eenewed inernational focus on these issues,

‘stimulate ideas and thoughts among policy-makers by providing illustrations and examples:

‘+ make practical suggestions on ways to ensure that the contribution of small: scale fisheries to poverty eduction and food security is maximized

Target audience for the Technical Paper

‘This Technical Paper is directed primarily at Fisheries decision-makers, policy actors, and all stakeholders inthe policy process, However itis relevant to al those with an interest in fisheries and alo more generally to development practitioners, given the contribution chat small-scale fisheries make and can make to development, poverty reduction and food sccurity The Technical Paper is therefore also expected to be

‘expecially useful for

© national and loeal goveramenminisuiet in developing countries (in fisheries and other sectors such as rural development, cosstal management oF environment)

+ key decision-makers involved in developing Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSP) and national poverty reduction strategies:

+ international and bilateral donor and development agencies;

regional and subcegional bodies (both fisheres-focused), but also economic development organizations such as the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Astociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), research institates;

© the fishing sector, isheries leaders and small-scale fisher and fishwocker organizations;

+ NGOs and civil society organizations involved in local development and/or fishery sector concerns

raat

STRUCTURE OF THE DOCUMENT

‘This document is organized into three main sections After defining, small-scale fisheries in the context of developing countries, the frst section discusses the concepts

‘of poverty, vulnerability and food security It briefly outlines how thinking about these concepts has changed in recent years, both within the international community, and more specifically, within the field of fisheries "The second section considers the sotual aad potential contribution of small-scale fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security Finally the third and main section considers ways of increasing the contribution of small-scale fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security This section starts by placing fisheries in 2 wider cross-seetoral contest, before proceeding

‘to-an assessment within the fisheries sector of the following topics

' Policy in support ofthe poor

« Legislation in support ofthe poe

+ Implementing policy and legislation

« Crose-sectorl saltions

«Fisheries management solutions

+ Financing poverty reduction

4 Making markets work forthe poor

+ Information and communication

For each of these topics, or entry points, particular effort has bea made to provide concrete examples, through the use of boxes, tables and theoretical considerations, of hhow the conteibution of small-scale fisheries 10 poverty alleviation and food security san be maximized

1 Definitions and concepts

1.1 CHARACTERIZATION OF SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES

1 is difficult to give 4 precise defniion of what "small-scale” fisheries are Kis 3 relative term (ic small-scale fishery in one country might be considered “industeal

ân nother) and encompasses a wide varies of fishery types A Íew year ago, Plateay noted, “Its wnfortenate that in the existing literature there is apparsnily no cansensus fon, or exen a clear spelling out of srhat is meant by “small-scale fisheries" (1989, p 567) His viewpoint was thar small-scale fisheries should therefore be defined “by defaule",

in opposition ta the Ieger scale fisheries based on “sophisticated technologies which involve heavy invesiment outlays which makes them inaccessible except to 4 new class

‘of capitalise arising from outside che fishermen communities” (Planta, 198, p56) From a diferent perspective snuil-kale fisheries have also often been presented

âm the pas a8 an activity characterized by lowe productivity and low yield rates (see, {for instance, FAO, 1973; Lawson, 1977; Smith, 1979), More recent studies, however, {gocstion this perception, West African pirogue fisheries, for example, have been characterized over the last 20 years by “2 strong growth ofthe sector including both the production and the revenues derived by the fishers and other actors involved inthe related activites (trade and processing) [and by) a constant inevease in the rade and

‘ommercialistion, on the domestic markets as well asin the share of the exports to the North” (Chauveau and Jul-Larsen, 2002, p10} This cconomie dynamism of the sector was also strongly emphasized during the frst ternational Warkshop on Small- scale Fisheries organized in Montpelier, France in 1989 (Duran, Lemoalle and Weber, 1991), Researchers from all continents mace it clear that spall eae fisheries exe he sonomically very elfcint and are part of an slaptive sector that cam adjust rapidly to its changing environment

(One important aspect of this changing environment fas been the technological innovation and modernization of small-scale fisheries and in particular, the increasing use of motorized bouts, whic allowed the aetvity €o move further offshore This brought fundamental changes io the relationships wich the other users, in particule the industeal lets, bu also withthe resource itself Some would argue, however, đc small-scale fisheries are more ecfeienly than larger-scale fisheries, perception that nevertheless has heen challenged empirically on many occasions

TDrawing da thị background, the experts patsipating in the FAO Working Growp

‘on Small-Scale Fisheries Banghod, Thavlanch November 2003) agred that it would be inappropriate to formulate a universally applicable definition for a sector as dynamic and diverse as sopall-sesle fisheries, The Working Group fek that it would be best to deseribe the sestor on the basis of the range of characteristics likely to be found in any particular small-sale fishery The following working definition was therelore

“endorsed, hich will also be adopted inthe presen doc

port fre et pw epee Nod

sf pat ema de

resing the onrbation of esiston and fo and,

ose bey vse, Th aici of thi mabe, soe fl ea par a, aj seal ar often treed on apy fib nd ry product sand dome ark, sud for sussence team Dự

‘alc iris ring the tat oe 1 decades cede of ete

snd globatzeson While pill me ee enzaged io faking and women mf procesing end neti omen ae bret eae neers hace ates and en anew

‘a engae i fh makeing and dition Othe ancy atts ac net making, boa Idi engine ear and maznane, eon provide addin fry raed employment unc apport in marine ad nan ing como Swal-e seri pease

rieted production, ocr, ha eed amy

at widely iferig egoizaton! leach verging fom slemploed singe apa chong

‘afr -eterprivstfrmal tr bios This esr hr

‘hoa css ois ad reps and eit ths Ft ara

raed pus orenkenig contrib food ect ad cert allan

‘What is missing inthis working definition is she muti-mie, mut-nser environment

of small-scale fisheries Both coastal and inland fisheries compete with other users for the resource base and ths multi-use, multi-user dimension is another key characteristic that can greatly affect the livelihoods of ishing communities,

1.2 SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES AND POVERTY

412.1 Current understanding of poverty

Auseful definition of poverty ist be found in the Development Action Committee's (DAC) Guidelines on Poverty Reductions

Pavey omompaser diferent denon of deprivation ht elt bomen cape nding

m 1

(OEcb, Sen ph,

‘omnmptin and food tect, eats destin ih,

‘This new conceptualization of poverty results from a long evolution in the ways poverty as been perceived, understood and measured Influenced by the income- poverty approach widely used in the 1960s, the concept of poverty was at that time

‘closely astociated to low income or consumption The limitation of the income: poverty

‘ode! gave rise in the 1970s tothe development of che basic needs model pionesred by the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the UN Research Institute on Social Development (UNRISD} This model arose from the recognition thar poverty is not simply the result of low incom, but also reflects & general deprivation of the material requirements to meet minimally acceptable human: needs suck 3s health and education, clean water and other services required to sustain livelihoods This basic needs model, premised on a multidimensional definition of poverty, later led co the formulation

of the United Nations Development Programme's (UNDP) Human Development Model

“The 1980s marked an even more drastic redefinition ofthe concept af poverty One instrumental clement inthis new approach was the work of Amartya Sen (1981) aa his

‘concept of "food entitlement”, the recognition that peoples’ command over food dacs not simply depend an its production and availability in uae market, but is ako governed

by asange of socal, economic, cokural and poiial factors Other influential concepss, such a5 the role of power, emerged during the same pesid, ether in relation/eeaction

to Sen's entilement concept, of independently Powcerlessness ~ oF is counterpart, empowerment ~ refers to the means by which entilements (access 10 resources) are maintained and defended, Chambers (1983) and many others have stressed thatthe poor usualy sulfer from a low level of sociopolitical organization and thae their eapacity to make their voice heard is consequently weak, resulting in exclusion from politcal and

Definitions ad concepts

decision-making process Conjointly with the issue of power, o strongly related to it, the concept of partéapation then emenged in the literature Underlying this participatory approach was the recognition tht the involvement of various groups, and in particular the poor, in the planning andl decision-making processes was a necessary condition to ensure the empowerment ofthese yroups (Cohen snd Uphotf, 1980), Finally, the 1980s were also characterized by’ the wide recognition of the previously neglected iaue of gender-related poverty (eg Agarwal, 1985)

In the 1990s, ILO's baste needs approach, with its mul-dimensional concept of poverty, was adapted by the UNDP for its Haman Development Indes approach

In This model, which is clerdy reognized in the definition abave by Development Assistance Committce (DAC) of the Organisation for Economie Co-operation and evelopment (OECD), seems ro have achieved broad consensus in the international community This muki-dimensionaliy is, for instance, one of the main features constituting the Sustainable Levelihoed Apprasch (SLA) promoted by numerous imesnationsl NGOs (eg CARE: Delending Dignity, Fighting Poverty, Oxtam) and development agencies (eg the United Kingdom Department for International Development [DFID], FAO, UNDP}

1.2.2 The evolving understanding of poverty in fisheries

‘Toa certain degree, the evolution and debate that have animated the general international developmeet community over the last 39 years have also been rellested more recently inthe fisheries domain, In particular, the muki-dimensional nature of poverty in fishing communities is now widely acknowledged and accepted, Townsley (1998), for instance, points out that “Fishing communities are oltsn characterized by overcrowded living coriitions and inadequate services, low levels of education and a lack of skills and assets (particularly land) " In addition, FAO emphasizes that fishers are generally

“livfing] in remote and isolated communities, are pootly organized and polivially voiceless and often highly exposed to accidents and natural disasters” (FAQ, 2000, point 8) These differen aspects (inadequate services, low level of education, polities poorly organized communities, vulnerability) are some ofthe mliple dimensions of poverty now universally rvognized

Poverty in fshery-dependent communities is therefore not accesacly directly

or only related to the resource oF catch levels For example although resource veresploitation may be 2 major cause of impoverishment for fishing commonitis, extreme poverty can also be observed in remote fishing camps where fishers catch and trade reasonable volumes of fish but lack access to health and other public services and are politically uncepresented This progress in ovr understanding of poverty in Fisheries has also beet reflected in recent attempts ta develop methods of assessing the diferent dimensions of poverty in fihing-dependen communities (Section 9) chat

‘combine measures of incomes, ssets and vulnerability context, often carried out under the organizing framework ofthe Sustainable Livelisoods Approach,

More fundamemally, these various observations also help us to realize that the newly defined nature of poverty in fishing communities is not specific to fishing communities

‘per se; ether, it teflects the wider issue of rural poverty and the general lick of economic, political and institutional development that affects rural areas in which fishing communities tend co lve Similarly, women inthe fisheries sector may be more disadvantaged and vulnevable than men, and certain forms of social marginalization

"nay be gender-speciie (Willums et al, 2002) But it should be recognized that the Important question of gender inequity transcends the small-scale fisheries sector and may rellest broader gender issves within the whole society

‘Nevertheless, it lao extremely important to recognize that some aspects of the multidimensional nature of poverty that alfect the fishing comunity, both mien and

‘women, are induced, maintained, or even increased by factors or sociovinstiutionsl

Ince the eneibaton a[smalal fbeies a port alleiton ae food eerity

mechanisms specific t fishing activities Ax argued inthe next section, for instance, certain degree of vulnerability characterizing the fishing communities is inherent tothe sctvity Another imporeant specificity ofthese fishing communities that may contribute for even increase the households’ exposure to poverty isthe fact that a large eumber of them ate highly mobile In Africa ~ and roa laser extent in Asia~asiglficane number

of fishing communities consist of groups of migratory individuals who live in cemporary

fr semi-permanent fishing camps Beyond the poverty aspects eelated to the frequent lack ofinfastrucure of these camps (access to water oF sanitation) and services (school, Inalth centres), his tas of “migrant” also generally augments the ikelhood of political under-representation or social maegialization Fishing communities ace frequestly neglected if compared with local arming communities in development planing

1.3 FISHERIES AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION

While major effort has heen made recently to better understand the mature and causes)

af poverty in fishing communities, a more recent focus inchades a parallel elfor to look atthe "other side of the coin” and ateempes to understand how small-scale fisheries can also contribute zo poverty alleviation, This Technical Paper is pare ofthis effort

Tn this new focus on poverty alleviation, itis important to distinguish beeween poverty provemion and poverty reduction Failure 10 make this dstinetion and to recognize the implications in tcrms of policy i ikely to lead to « muddled debate and possibly to unwanted outcomes and inappropriate policies In accordance with the rest,

ff the international community, this Technical Paper discusses fisheries’ conteibution

to poverty reduction to describe a situation where people are becoming measurably

‘otter off over time due to their involvement and/or investment in fisheries activities Poverty reduetion therefore refers to a situation where wealth is generated and capital sovumulated through capital and labour investment sade in the fishery, and which then helps to lift people out of poverty

“The three economic levels at which poverty reduction can occur ~ household and intr household, local and national - depend on different mechanisms and thecefore relate to and require different policies In the rest of thie Technical Paper, this distinction is made explicit by categorizing the overall contribution of small Fisheries to poverty reduction: (i) wealth generation 2¢ the household level snd its disriburion within households ~to men, women and childeen i) a rer! development engine atthe community levek and (il) economic grozeth atthe national evel The Jnterdependence between these three levels is complex A migrant fisherman may cam

4 significant cash income that is not remitted back to his household, leaving his wite tnd children in conditions of poverty A few fishers may become very sch (wealth _generation) without necessarily making the commousity within which they lve benefit from theie wealth On the other hand, in several of the countries where artisanal fisheries contribute sigaficantly to national esonomic growth (eg Senegal, Ghana),

“mang fisheries communities (anda fortior’ fishing households) in remote coastal areas

ce stil ving a the margins of subsistence and dignity

In contrast, poverty prevention relers tthe role of fisheries activities in helping people to maintsin a minimum standard of living, even when tis below a given poverty fine, which helps them to survive Poverty preveation thes refers to reducing risks and increasing safety net functions ina general context of cwhierabilty, Vulnerability ean bbe conceptvalized (ex Adger etal, 2004 asthe combinatary result of

«risk exposure (Le she nature and degree to which 2 household oF community is

‘exposed toa certain risk, for example, natural disaster, confliets, mace changes, et)

«sensitivity this rish ~ messure for instance through the dependence of the household or community ~ on the fishing activity for its food security oF income

‘generation,

Definitions end comers

‘or beeause they depend highly on the fisheries vo ensure ther food security But iis alo true that in s given environment, with the same level of income snd similar access

to publie services, some people may sill e more vulnerable than others due to the very nature of the activity on which they depend Experience shows tht this isthe case for Fishing households, 3 wil be discussed in grester dealin section 2.24

Finally this Technical Paper wes the term poverty alleviation as an inclusive term

‘encompassing both poverty reduction and poverty prevention as well as vulnerability reduction (Figure 1 These different dimensions of poverty alleviation ae summatized

in Table {and discussed in mare deuil wth conerete examples in section 2

4.4 THE CONCEPT OF FOOD SECURITY

14:1 Food and poverty

[As pointed out, poverty has various dimensions, of which the food dimension is fundamertal: people chronically lacking access to sufficjent food ate considered poor Malautrition segaively affects people's working and learning capacity, and has significant associated costs (see Box 1) and may affeet vulnerable groups living jost above the poverty threshold, causing them tocnter the ranks a the poor Food security

nd poverty are thereore closely inked, and eliminating hunger and malmotiton is therelore a precondition forthe eradication of poverty

1.4.2 Food security at the individual level

‘The 1995 World Pood Summit defines food security as “a condition when all people,

st allies, have physical and economic aeess to suicent, safe and netetious food

‘meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.”

Tris useful to emphasize two important dimensions of food security contained

‘with this definition ~ che individual and the temporal, Food insecurity may affect people at che individual or household level and may be temporary (transitory) or permanent (chroaie)”

& See webinar endo enhsm

+ Asp ‘tude ot by Broes O00, s mor flo thi defo dt it linn dimension or alow or hangin ond ec: nparteular thi kes ppp for mesg — it promos wade ood icy

nreasing the cntibtion of oall-caefbercw povety lleiaton and fod searisy

e nh

`

1977 Spare, 199; Bhargsv, 1997, which usually esuls in lower produciviny and wages (Geravs, 1986; Deolaikar, 1988; Alderman eta, 19%; Croppenste and Muller 2000 Second there is evidene that poorer nutitonal sats leaves people more suscepble tolls = leading cvenusly ta higher morality rate (Horton, 1999) Thi, dhc Ra risk of intergeneratonal ransmisson of poor nutritional satus: women who suffer fom poor nurtion are mor lách to ghe bình to underweight babies These babies therefore star out witha nutiona handicap (UNICEF, 1998) Fourth, there is evidence that poor

‘nutrition i astosiated with poor school performance in school-age children Becaure of hunger, children re lise or tired and inattentive, and cannot participate in leaning sctivtes Furthermore, cogitve bility lio may be impaired a reul of prolongel and

‘severe matron Finally thre some evidence thatthe macroeconomic performance

‘ofan economy may sffer as a reul of the comltve impact ofthese effects thas

‘ben shown secnaly thatthe overall effect may beo reduce a country’s ate of economic

‘goth Horton, 199)

‘Note The eens provided ce ect i Bros, 232

1.43 Food security at the national or regional evel

Food security is also sometimes considered from 3 collective or national view refering to "national food sel-sufficieney" Some would arg that individal food Security and national food sl-suffcency are twa diferent and unelsted concepts Indesd, national sl-sutficency is neither necessary aor suicint to guarantee food security a the individual level Ini, for istace is self-sufficient, bu alrge part of its populations noe fod secre On the other hand, Hong-Kong and Singapore ae not sell-sfficent, but ther populations are food secure due to the counties" capacity to import food Food security is therefore brought about by a combination of individual, houschold, community, national and even international factors In parca, efficient trickle-down and cedsuibution mechanisms, and wanslerbasedenidements Sen, 1996) (ue individual-based accesa to these mechanisms) are required in order that ational slfsuficieney ensure individual food security

1.4.4 Direct and indirect contribution to food security

Another aspect of food security needs clarification, especially when focusing on the relation between food (as a commodity) and its potential to contribute to food security (as an economic activity) Producing food such as wheat, cassava or fish through farming or fishing activity can contribute directly to individual or national food security through the supply ofthe food commodity itself (subrstence)” But fe may,

Subsnace” i find here aban economic sytem or sctity opted by’ howchlds primarily

‘nize sound dames modeofprecducton tha depends vy ono esouce aves, (ce ting) and mainly gerd towards ome enbumpton, but may ao iva evel of artering

Increasing the contribution of salle eri poverty alleiaton and food erty

onbaon sua, —- TPEAGhabgAte AMemDesmh - Tươnghelfemlaymetoreeges

Ni

pa mension

‘nici | Tenoort breakdown in he howshoifs auticent ape (eg education bow, Income gle sfemploymen ines)” Scr wed no scour meet Separates Teasing ais a The aicnh oc grratert op tai, isuerfegmanetor balance Secura wes of maco-eonome rer ur and wea, eps ot paymer apart pois med

also contribute indirectly tothe individual's or household’ food security through the revenues generated from production and related processing and marketing activities {whether individuals are self-employed or paid wages), which ean be used to purchase food In other words, fsh contribute to food security, directly through subsistence mechanisms with high quality food, including animal protein and some important micro-nutrients (see section 2), and indirectly chrough incomes and livelihoods tothe fishers or the people working in related aexvitis such as processing or tading

1.45 Food security at the global scale

Since the 1990s, a further dimension ofthe fish food security issue has been debated more and more frequently in the literature, Ths relates to the growing imbalance herween fish supply and fish demand at the world level The current situation of the world’s capture fisheries, which have reached a plateau in production of around 100.000 million tonnes per year, contrasts with the sill increasing world population and its associated growing demand for food in general a well as for fish Measured in

‘terms of per capita fish supply, these opposite trends resulted in an aggregate decrease per eapta often percent in 13 years (from 14.6 kg in 1987 ro 13.1 Kg in 2000) Under these conditions, the role of fisheries in contributing to food security’ may be even

‘more eral However, the limited nature of wild fisheries emphatizes the increasing role that aquaculture will have to playin the future to compensate for this growing food avsilabiity/demand disequilibrium

“Table 2 summarizes the different clements that constitute the various dimensions

‘of the concept of fish food security 28 discussed above, The second part ofthe table characterizes the issue of food insecurity through its temporal dimension The table provides an initial framework for a more rigorous assessment of the contribution of smallscale fisheries to food security to be discussed in setion 2

2 Contribution, role and

importance of small-scale fisheries

in poverty alleviation and food

security

2.1 THE CODE, SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION

‘The importance of small-scale fisheries in poverty alleviation and food security is fest

acknowledged in the Code under the General Principles (Are 6) where itis stated as

follows:

‘Are 62 Fibres managoment sold promate the msitnance ofthe quality, dey and

1 7

Conta of fond erty pace alton ad uuinabedrcelapmnt

“This contribution is most clessly acknowledged in Article 6.18

Ressizing he bpecetcomriaions of einal end male iris employment

Income a fond sey, Stats bold appropri otc te righ of ube and fabworker,

ty thee engaged tbe small-eale and etal uber to amr ad

ecbond, ay sella preferential an seve appropri, 1 radional abng gros aed

rere heater adr th ational jordin

2.2 SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION

In this section, the framework provided in Table 1 is used to identify and diseus in 3

comprehensive manner the different ways that small-scale fisheries can contribute to

poverty alleviation, Causes of vulnerability in small-scale fisheries communities are

sso reviewed

2.2.1 Contribution of small-scale fisheries to economic growth at the

national level

|As noted in the intoduction, small-scale fisheries may demonstrate sigaificant

comparative advantages over industrial fisheries in economic, social, enviconmental

and cultural terms, and can be extremely profitable in some specific circumstances

Theie actual and potential capacities to contribute to national economic growth and

poverty alleviation are therefore important

Unfortunately a the present time, many national statistics do not separate out

small-scale and large-scale fisheries data, and information on the contribution made

by small-scale fisheries is seldom available One is therefore usually left to consider

the balance of industrial and small-scale fisheries ina particular country concerned snd

to make certain assumptions Where small-seale fisheries make up the bulk of overall

fishing aetvity itis easier ro generate estimates of their total contribution

‘At the national level, there are three main ways in which small-scale fisheries ean

contibute

* muliplieGDP effects

* generation of tax revenvess

* generation of foreign exchange

Ineesing te conrbution of mal scale fibres to poverty alleviation ad food scent

“Taxes provide the state with an opportunity to assist both poverty reduction and poverty prevention initiatives, In most countries, tax revenues from both large- and small-scale fisheries are not ring-fenced for retention within the fisheries sector, but are deposited into national tessures, although some countries retain a proportion

of user fees for fsheries-spevfie expenditure, such as research or monitoring control and surveillance activities, Funds avilable to national treasuries can then be spent on redistributive mechanisms aimed at targeted poverty prevention or on generic social

0x2 contribution of the matine fisheries sector to national GDP inthe SADC region

‘The following graph shows the percentage contribution made by the fisheries sector to GDP in the SADC region in 2001 In all countries but Nari, the percentage of total

‘employment in small-scale fisheries x high (Mozambique, 91 percent; South Afric, 85 percent Namibia, around 0 percents Angola, 68 percent the United Republic of Tanzania,

9 percent): One cannot simpy apply the percentage of smal scale employment to the rox value-added generated to estimate the contribution of valve-added made by smal: Seale fisheries, especially given the subsistence nature of some small-scale fisheries, which implies no value-added and the tendency for larger-scale operations to beable w invest

‘more in yalue-ded techniques and processing, Nevertheless, these employment figures, taken together with the graph, provide an indication ofthe relative importance of smll- sei fisheries!

Contribution, role and portance of mallee in per alison and fod city

0x3

‘ax generation inthe United Republic of Tanzania {Inthe mainland ofthe United Republic of Tanzania, revenues colored forthe Central Government 2002 from the fisheries sector totaled USS6.9 milion (inland eal), of

‘which 97 percent was fom export taxes Eighty-five percent of export taxes were collected from the export of Nile perch-reltd prods from Lake Victoria, Desentralized revense collection i estimated a SUSL.S millon pee yea of which 9 percent i dv 1o fi vies, (62 percent of which i levied from freshwater fisheries Toa tax burden on the fishery

is extimated at 9 percent of landed valu, and the sector contributes approximately one

‘petceat of total government revenue cllction In the mainland ofthe United Republic

of Tanzania, the Ministry of Finance allows retention of part of camed revenues ia the fisheries sector For the ical year 2001/2002, 48 percent of earned revenue wa sent hack

to th Fisheries Depaement, 6 percent was taken ss overhead by the Ministry of Nats Resources and Tourism, and the remaining 46 percent was retained by the Treasury

In Zanziba, revenues collected forthe Zanzibar Government in 2002 wulled SUS3.06 ili, of which 73 percent was collected from export ats OF export taxes, B4 percent

‘vas collected from the export of died seaweed, produced by eatensive small-scale arculture Local evens collection from the fishery is eximated at $US02 milion

“Thetoại tax burden onthe fishery is estimated 225 percent of landed value In Zanzibar,

A retetion scheme was started in 2003 Forte fsa year 2001/202, the department spent

170 percent of collected revenue and required net support from the Treasury

‘which might contribute to both poverty prevention and poverty reduction

Small-scale fisheries can make national-level contributions to economic growth through the generation of a wide range of taxes, Taxest may have co be paid to government at local, regional or national level (sce Box 3) and small-scale fishers and fishworkers may make tax payments inthe form of:

“+ income tx and employment eax such as national insurance contributions; tax on company sales or incomes

social employment taxes;

dlties on products used as inputs to business activites

‘eustoms and excise tax on imports and exports

value-added tax;

vessel registration fees and licences;

landing fees:

levies on sles

‘Taxes may be pad by al links in che commodity chain and by the suppliers of inputs

to each link in the chain, bur in many developing countries, collection of taxes from

"Totes may be directo indirect irc tne ae tone es vid on inv obsineas, whie Inc aes areal ove ae at re placed ons prod ore

Ineeesing the eanribation of ll-scale fisberis to poverty alleviation end fod ewrity

Boxe Foreign exchange earnings [Export earings from fshesies in some countic can contibue very large proportions

of toul expon saminge, se in Mauctanis and Mozambique where faberes have historically coneibuted as much as 40 perent and 39 percent, respectively, of national

‘export earings, althoogh mainly from industrial ishing activity, However, significant proportion ofthe increas in expors from many developing cunres hasbeen provided

by small-scale fisheries, especially to meet an ever-increasing demand for high-quaiy emersal fish in developed country markets ln Senegal, che aheries sector a8 3 whole

‘conributed 37 percent of export earnings between 1990 and 2000, with a significant

‘proportion of the value of exports originating fom small-scale shris Uganda provides nother example, where major export fisheries, ased mainly on Nile perch from small- scale fisheries in Lake Victoria, generated fish export that contibued 17 percent of the tou value of exports in 2002, having grown fom less than one percent in 1999 Nile perch from smalescle fisheries leo play an immporant role in exports from the United Republic of Tanzania, contributing, USS77 millon to a total fisheries export value of

‘round US89taillion in 2002,

Ta some Latin American counties, she inks of small-scale isheries with the exporting sector and their contribution to foreign exchange earnings have diverse features For incance, in Chile, Argentina, Mexico and Costa Rica some small-scale fishers directly txpor their production In ther countries of the region (eg, Colombia, Ecuador,

‘Hondora and Panama), landings of high value species are sold vo processing /exporting fies In this case, although catches fom smal cal series ae not egisered ase

for exports, they aeverthles contribute to exports

‘established, and the high degree of informality of the sector (in capture fisheries but also in related small-scale trading and processing activites)

221.3 Foreign exchange

Tin certain eases, small-scale fisheries can also make significant contributions to national

‘economics through the generation of foreign exchange derived from regional and/or imernational trade (see Box 4) International trade in fish and fishery products has

‘grown rapidly over the lst 20 years Export values have risen from USSI5 bilion

in 1980 co US$56 billion in 2001 In che same period the developing countries’ share

‘of tol exports has risen from 40 t0 50 percent, with net receipts from fish trade by developing countries inereasing from less than USS billion to almost USS18 billion Imports are concentrated strongly in the United States, Europe and Japan, with developed countries absorbing 80 percent of total world imports (Lem, 2003)

Export earnings are important for both the private and public sectors because in addition to generating employment and profits on sales, they generate forcign exchange dnd contribute to the national balance of sade, Both the private and public sectors need foreign exchange to purchase imported products chat can be vital factors of production for economic growth,

pent llevtion and ood secariy

to tural development theough income and employment multiplier effets This is especially the eae in fisheries because ofthe cash ezop nature of fish chis is possibly tone ofthe few products in some rural economies that can generate cash to sput and stimulate demand, because other food products may be bartered/exchanged more or consumed within the household

Multipliers arise because fishing activites use the products of other industries! businesses to produce their own produets, and because outputs from fishing become inputs to another industey/ousines, The main concept of the multiplier is therefore Thad on the recognition that the various sectors that make up the economy are imtrdependem tn this respect, small-scale fishing activity may ave an impact on businesses both within the fisheries sector and on businesses in other set

‘The impacts from small-scale fishing activities on rural development can be direct indiect and/or induced Diet impacts relate ro sles, income and employment elfecs

‘on the producers themselves, which result from changes in she demand or production,

‘of fish products Indirect impacts zelat to the sles, income and employment effects on businesses chat supply goods and services to small-scale fish producers, or which market

‘oF process thee products down the supply chsin, Induced impacts are the sles, income and employment effets resulting from changed levels of income and expenditure throughout the local economy as a result of diet and indirect impacts For example, Fishing crew may use their earings to purchase groceries or household items:

Another way of looking atthe indirect impacts ~ in terms of the income, sales!

‘outputs and resulting employment ~ is to consider the contributions to poverty reduction that can be made “upstream” and “dowastecam" ofthe production activity, through the commodiey/supply chain

Upstream activities are those activities supplying inputs to the fishing operation

‘Typical inputs for small-scale capture fisheries include: investment costs in vessels and geat: operational costs of fuel, ice foad and bat, labour costs; financial services; and maintenance costs, Many of these inputs are typically provided by small-scale individuals or enterprises located nearby within the local rural are, although some inputs such as fishing gear and fuel may originally be manufaceured further aw, cither nationally of internationally, and supplied locally diyough local businesses/raders Downstream setvitis ae thse following product harvesting and requiring inputs Some examples of the inputs requized are: investment in desige, construction and

‘equipping processing and marketing facilities; labour; transport of fish from lending sites and 80 market; financial services; variable costs such 3 ie, knives For cutting, -vood for smaking, salt for drying, packaging materials and fish boxes; and maintenance costs As with upstzeam inputs, small-scale individuals or enterprises typically provide many of the “downstream” inputs and activities within the local rursl ates thereby

‘generating sles, income and employment, and contributing to poverty redvetion and ural development

Tn considering both che wpstream and dowastream indirect stivities 36 well asthe induced impacts, one ean easily imagine how small-sale fishing activities ean besome

* The otic andimerinduty ff canbe model showghinpooupst VO) model Modes thay diets sg country ne repom,oney be mele couery epional) dl, snd also so

‘meturencat of changes nil domand om the ơnơm nộ cơn bu dle tore to ond

To pena (GBD

Increasing the mm of el le fers to poverty sllevistion end food secarity

‘alue-added of 175 billion TR Interestingly, twas shown tht forthe supply chains

4 whole, 268 906 of the total labour estimate of 308 127 wets inthe “ontiled/pooe” ategory, showing the importance of bagda-related activities fr the poor in Banglades Similarly, 1 percent (4.45 billion TR) of the total value-added/income accrued to the

“unklledpoor”, 27 percent 10 the *semislled/midale income", and only 12 percent

to the “silled/rch”? Using inpusowpet ables, che sudy also demonstrated that to reduce one million Tk of shri output, 587 128 Tk of input would be require from

‘ther sectors and tha the vale of the output muller was such tha for 1 milion Tk

‘expansion of shrimp exports, rol ouspu ofthe economy would increase by 2.153 Tk

ml through various fst and second-round output adjustments

See Maciadyen aml Aeon Thoms 201)

mm

+ Thevny aes mun he prema of out inci inet rm singed aie

‘eich ge on 4.9 pen for dicen ks inthe apply cha, withan sera ie om

‘hesaply chain of peer swing the high dependence on pated ates

0x6 Ile perch production in Ugandan waters of Lake Victoria Lake Victoria covers an area of 68 020 hind, and isthe second largest lke in the world,

‘The fishery is an important source of animal protein fr the densely populated spsian communities of Kenya, the United Republic of Tanzania and Ugands, which share ts

‘waters There are around 609 fish Ining sites on the Ugandan shores of the lke, 3000 fishers operating in its waters and as many a5 700000 people estimated tobe employed in ily activities related to the fishing industey, Catches of Nile perch, the min ishery

fn thelake, were close to 90600 tonnes in 2000 and represented around 24 percent of total Sih ended in Uganda n 2001, 28183 tonnes of Nile perch were exported from Uganda

‘vith vale of else to USS80 milion

Se Nsinke Bolo and Abana, 202,

the main driver and engine of poverty cedvetion in rural locations, with a web of businesses and individuals generating sles, income and employment asa result ofthe multiplier effects of fishing activity Ths is expecially the case when considering that the commodity chain itself can be extensive, with all levels ina supply chain requiring

‘inputs ln this way, small-scale fisheries can create wealth within the sector, which may then spread tothe non-fishing sector and the whole local community

“Empirical examples of the extent to which smll-sale fisheries and fish farming

Contribution, role and portance of ml eae fisheries in poverty allevaion and food scnity

80?

Fishing asa full-time activity

In coastal areas, people may enrol as crew members on bouts for a given part of the

ets depending on opporauiie o lack thereof in other rural ative Thi category

of wage-baed labourers, however, involves mainly fall-xime profesional fshers= males

‘working all ysar round ơn arisinal or semi-indostrial vesels (Chaboud and Déme,

199; Chauveay, Jul-Lasen and Chaboud, 200) Their revenues ae usally based on

s shure-conuct remuneration system and the dt is mainly undertaken for income

eneraton, although some pat ofthe revere may be paid in kind This conceras many

‘men in coastal villages, and even in some urban areas in Acs (eg Senegal Ghana) or im

[Ais (og Se Lanks, Philippines, Thailand, Vee Nam), Other members ofthe houschold

may be involved in ishing relate activities (fish processing, trading) or other urban

‘or url acistes (farming, home gardening o vetock rearing),

activities contribute to overall rural development in this way are not frequent, but two

‘examples are provided in Box 5 and Box 6

22.3 Contribution of small-scale fisheries to household poverty al

223.1 Small-scale fisheries asa central element in iveibood strategies

‘As mentioned, catching/harvesting of fish and associated postharvest activities

(processing and trading) generates livelihoods, employment and income to millions

‘of people around the world, especially in coastal ateas (See Box 7) An estimated 99

percent of the 38 million people recorded by the FAO globally as fishers and fish-

farmers are classified as small-scale Assuming 2 1:3 ratio for direct upstream and

downstream activities, this means that over 100 million people depend on fishing and

directly related activites (processing, trading, ancillary services et), 99 percent of

‘whom live in developing countries Although these jobs may not systematically be

synonymous with decent living conditions for these people, this figure of over 109

allion means chat fishing and related activities contribute to the livelihoods of a very

significant number of households in developing countries, the bulk of whom are found

in cura areas

[Not inclided in these estimates, however, are the other hundreds of millions

cof people engaged in temporary fishing activities, cither in marine aress, but more

typically in eivers, crecks, small lakes and reservoirs, seasonal or temporary ponds,

wetlands and floodplains." In these cases, fishing is not a fullime occupation,

but is pare of a mult-activty livelihood strategy developed by the individuals and

hhouseholds Within thes strategies, fishing may appear among activities involving low

human and financial capital and are occasionally undertaken by household members

(see Box 9), or at the other end ofthe spectrum, may represents a more prominent ~but

sill seasonal ~ activity that is strongly integrated into the household's yearly planned

livelihood strategies (ee Box 8)

"The few studies that have attempted to estimate the contribution of fishing in these

rmul-activity based livelihoods have demonstrated thae it ean play s major role In

the Zambezi Basin, for example, a recent study showed that inland fisheries, through

theie contribution to the households cash income, generate more cash than cattle and

sometimes more than crops (Turpie eta, 1999) (Table 3)

"eae king on mot ofthe cans, prs ắc hoosloift mật soi (xi is ore

Frege recorded in governments ss amet, the comibuton of bei be

recotie sl scouted fora anal igor by panes ad poly taker,

a

nresing the contrbation of all-scalefsheis to poverty alleviation an food esrity

Boxe

‘Seasonal or parttime fishing

Seasonal or pare fnhng is endly chưaeerzal by ä higher labour and financial iesoleemeat dạn oœadoml hing es abo conducted by diferene member of the Sous: parttime fer are males who gt involved in fishing ste a par of +

‘wider, mulraciy lveihoodsratey Broly speaking, wo main types of saan fishers am be đngsief: the sedentary (loca ies andthe migrant fishers, The sedentary fishers ual se lav cheap and simple ishing ges (aps giles, Ihoklns, although some more sophisticated gear or tecigus fe fenceso aris) tnaybeusedar well Thistypeof sity can strom afew weeksto several months ring the seson, depending onthe combination of actives undertaken by the houschold and thea af bar and resoarec The catch su fr subistence purpose rnd

‘old in ol markets In Ac log ives o in the vty of water bois sch 8 ond or reservoirs the active males may get involved inthis expe of seasonal sing {etry between coping sean or when other arclaral es re low (Thomas Sul Adam, 199; Sans, 200) I the Tole Sap Lake are in the Mekong sin, hundreds

‘of thousand of howschols sac thine between sing sty perted onthe open

‘eater af the kc ad the ging lodplins during the ny season, andthe ealetion

ie paddy and other ubltence and cash crops drng che reno the yea (Abed et {198} The second major ype of seo fri migra ihe They ae geneally

$oung men who undertake ropional or even pa-connene migrations (log the cons {fom one river bain to anacher) They are ually very skilful and ue clay sophie and very ffecive fishing gars and technigues, They are infact one ofthe

a source of echnical innovation in sala Rare an the introduction of new

ing techniques or gears in a iver basin o region is usually the result of reebnolgicd

‘by migrant fishers from another regions Their presence in one area may range

‘rom afew weeks to several years They usualy act onan opportunist basis, which an

‘ise managerial problems and conflict issues with the local fishing communities

Contribution of fisheries to household’ canh ncorne(USS/housebold/yes) in diferent parts of

‘the Zambezi Basin compared to other activites (percentage of total household income

(Other studies also emphasize how in floodplain areas, fishing fits within a flexible

‘matrix of various activities that constitute che basis ofa diversified livelihood strategy

‘om which households rely in order to spread risks between various economic activities

in an uncertain environment and to create synergy between the inputs and outputs of these activities, thereby enhancing capital accumulation and income opportunites (see Bos 10) Fishing as a secondary or complementary activity is therefore essential for rural houscholds both in terms of income and food secutty

‘Where fisheries constitute the primary (all-time) activity, cost and earnings studies can demonstrate the value-added (Le erew earnings and net profit) made from small-

Conrbwtion, role and inportanceof alls fishes in poverty aleviation end fod ency

sox) ceasional fishing (Occasional ishing strategies involve low human involvement and low capital investment and are underaken by a very large number of households in developing countries,

‘ssentilly for subsistence purposes, This strategy involves cheap and simple fishing gear (eg bit fishing lines) sas Frequently carved out by non-leadiag members of the hovschold (children or elder, oF women in male-hesded household) in addition to

‘he ator domestic activities This type of ishing sally condited om the margins of water bodies located in the vicinity ofthe house ln oodplain areas of the Indian subcontinent, this type of activity may involve up t0 70-80 percent of the households during the flood season (Thompson and Hossain, 1998; Hogsarth et al 199), Ocasional (amoening and/ot evening) fishing, conduct in association with other activites such as Sarming, household or agsculurlcomminmente occupying the rex of the day i very

‘common in West African villages on the coast rin dhe vicinity of iver (e.g, Cameroon, Burkina Faso) or lagoons (eg, Benin, Céte dIvoire) Hremans and Jallow, 197; Willams and Awoyomi, 1998)

80x 10 Fishing as part ofa livelihood strategy

‘Rese eseatch in the Lake Chad Basin illstrates how fishing can constitute apowsfal cine for capital cumulation and a ental element in livelihood support Fish provides

4 source of cash to be reinvested in various fishing or nn-fishing actives (Neland etal, 2000; Réné etal, 2003) In particular, beter-off houscokis in these regions use

8 Lage part ofthe income generated by fish cashes to purchase farming inputs such 38 {erilzers and seeds and to bite farm lou Te ability to hive extra labour is a erica sxdvantage inthe Sahelian region where isnot so much land but rather labour that isthe

‘major constraint t farming production The results also show ow adltonal investment

in fishing input (heough new fishing gear or more labour allocated to this activity)

an generate a instantaneous income surplus, 1n contrast to farming activites, where several months (oni harvest ine) have wo pass before any benefit i obtained from the investment Given the high enveonmental and politcal uscetiny that characterizes

‘arnings can be quite substantial as vsidly illustrated by the success stories of "Big,

‘Men’ along the Senegalese or Ghanaian coastlines, suggesting that small-scale fisheries are not always or systematically a last-resore activity, but on the contrary can be a

“figs resort activity” (e.g, Nguinguiri, 2000) But few ofthese success stories have been adequately reported Whac has received much more attention inthe literature so far is the contribution of small-scale fisheries to poverty prevention, and in particular, their role asa safety net or activity of last resort for the poor

“ tượcstni túc qantnButiom ofall cal fishers to pecertyslviston and fd snr

22.3.2 Fishing and fish-trading asa safety net activity fr the poor

‘Although small-scale fisheries may contribute to poverty reduction atthe household level, i should be recognized that 2 the present time the most important contribution

‘of siallscale fisheries to poverty alleviation (atleast in terms of number of fsherfll involved) i probably chrough thei role in poverty prevention Experience suggests that forthe large msjorty of hovscholds involved in fishing activites Full-time, temporary

fr occasional fishers) in developing countries ishing and related activities do noe generate high economic returns, but instead help them to sustain thee livelihoods and prevent them from falling deeper into deprivation The lirature, which emphasizes hhow important cis role is foe rural populations, usvlly refers co mechanisms such 35

“fisheries as a safery net” or as an “activity of las resort

Aldhough these poverty prevention mechanisms are perhaps Tess atcactive from

4 purely economic point of view ~ in the sense that no significant surplus eent is

‘generated by the activities ~ the role of small-scale fisheries as livelihood support foe the rucal poor is cruvial from a social point of view, especially in remote areas where alternative employment may be scarce and social security programares either minimal or non-existent Fisheries can play a critical role in these areas as 2 welfare

‘or redisributive system, which would otherwise have to be provided through other foams of socal support by local or central government (e.g thiough food-far-work of

‘unemployment benefic programe)

Tn situations of economically insiutionally restricted access to other capital (ie Financial capital such sere) or production lactors (such s private land), the allegedly relatively easy andor free acess to fishing grounds allows poor peaple to rely more heavily om the local commons resources to obtsin/extract the goods and services they need to sustain thei livelihoods, Inland fisheries are particulary important inthis context Widely dispersed and easily aecessble to poor and/or isolated communities, these fisheries provide an important alternative source of income and food when other livelihoods are insufficient This safety net dimension of fisheries is obviously of _greater importance and relevance ta poor and marginalized houschos, since the latter fare gencrlly those with limited access ta land and/or other resources

Small-scale fisheries can also provide a critical safety net for vulnerable houscholds even those who were not previously poor) when they face a sudden decline in their income This ean occu, for instance, when the head of 2 houschald loses his or her jab, farm crops fal, oon a larger seale, when the local or even national exonomy deteriorates Revurtent civil wars or military conflicts, population displacement and natural disasters ~all frequent in developing countries, especially in the African context

= ako create circumstances where those affected turn to fisheries ax additional oF alternative soures of income, food or employment (see Box 11), especially given the

‘open-access nature and/or poor management of many fish resources

“The reliance on fisheries to provide income forthe poorest does not only soncern fisheries activities per se, but appliss also to processing and erading activities, This aspect add an important gender dimension to the discussion, given that women are

Conerbaion, roland importance femal scale fier la ove llevan and food sci

0x11

‘Small-scale fisheries asa safety net activity forthe poor

“The soe of small-scale fisheries safety net forthe poor in developing counties has

ben observed and deseribed worlwide In Souther Africa for instance the Lake Kariba

fishery has ben shown to have fulfilled thị ole at least rwice over the ast 30 years ul-

Larsen, 2008), First in the mid-1970s several thousand miners workingin the Copperbelt

in Zambia lose chest jbs and migrated to the Lake region, where they undertook fishing

2 an akernatve support for thir livelihoods Second, few yours Inter during the

Zimiabwcan Independence Wat several hundreds of families moved to the Lake rion

forsecurity reasons and entered the fishery o ensure minimum revenues unl the politi

situation in thee region of origin had improved Ata global scale onemay even wand

‘what ete the doubling ofthe total number of fishers in she world sinc the 19705 (FAQ,

1997) may indeod reflec the specie capacies of sll-scale fisheries to absorb surphs

Iabour and pla this racial eoleas a safety ne forthe poor

‘usually the main participants in these related sectors For example, Gordon (2003)

describes the case of fish trading associated with the Chisense fishery on Lake Mwera

(Zambia-Congo border) during the mid-1980s Most of the women involved in the

‘tading activity were poor and generally lacking the financial suppor of their husbands

‘They had to look for other activites to meet their daly needs ina context where the

traditional female atviey ~ cassava farming ~ was becoming increasingly difficult due

to land scarcity and unprofitable prices (ibid, p 173) Under these circumstances ish

trading provided the activity of last resort for these poor women,

‘The lst point that needs to be highlighted in relation to this safety net dimension

Js the issue of open access or semi-open access that characterizes small-scale fisheries

in developing countries From 3 poliey point of view, and in particular from a poverty

prevention point of view itis important to realize that open accssisthe key mechanism

that permits the safety valve of the fisheries to function, thus allowing people to engage

in the sector Ths rises important questions concerning the trade-off chat may need

to be made if one wishes to maintain the capacity of small-scale fisheries to play their

safety net role (poverty prevention), while at the same time, trying to restrict of at

least control access to these resources for sustainability reasons and to inerease their

wealth-generating potential (poverty reduction) This is where the core ofthe debate

is likely to take place

Indeed itcan be argued that regulated access to small-scale fisheries could contribute

to environmental sustainability in the medium to long term, and thus improve food

security conditions of present and future generations, It may, however, do litle for

poverty prevention and food security inthe short term Furthermore, the argument is

based om the fact thatthe sustainability ofthe resource isthe pre-condition to ensure

food security As discussed in section 1, Sen (1981) and many others (Mearas, Leach

and Sconnes, 1998; Leach, Mearns and Scones, 1999) have shown tha this assumprion

= which was the justification forthe support of productvist approaches to fisheries

development inthe 19605-1980 ~ has its limits Conditions for pro-poor food security

fare by no means achieved simply chrough higher productivity although sustainability

fof the resource appears 0 be 4 necessary condition in the long run for small-sale

fisheries to play its role of poverry alleviato

224 Vulnerability in small-scale fisheries

Poverty is a very dynamie phenomenon Despite the existence of poverty traps

‘within fishing communities, people cn move rapidly in and out of poverty, as well as

2

Ines the canribon ofall fibers to port aleviion end fod ews

Ihecome poorer or less poor, and itis very important to specifically consider issues of vulnerability

2241 Why are small-scale fisheries especially oulneable?

Fishing households in general, and poor fishers in small-scale fisheries in particular, sare prone to very high levels of vulnerability, which are closely related to thes fishing, sctvity and the type of livelhoods associated with it This vulnerability affects them through various sources of risk

Fishing is by nature an unpredictable activity Although there is undoubtedly a

“loose” relationship between capital investment and returns om that investment, his relationship is particularly uncertain and variable in small-scale marine and inland

‘apeure fisheries, both in the short and longer term The yield (and therefore the revenue, norwithstanding price fluctuations) that fishers derive from fishing is not simply 3 function of the number of nets or the time spent at sea or st other water bodies Ir also depends on exogenous factors, and in particular on the aailability/ satchabity ofthe resource, which fluctuates on a daly, aoathly and anowal bass, This Fepresents a major difference between caprute fisheries and sgriculeura actviies, even

if some would argue that faeming activities are also unpredictable (see, for example, Eldin and Millville, 1989) It is important to note thar the uncertainty affecting capture activities is also ceansfezed ~ perhaps toa lesser extent ~ 10 fsheries-related

‘sctvities (processing, trading), thus affecting ether members of the same community and sometimes of the same hovseholds

(Other factors within the fisheries sector itself that increase the vulnerability of fishers and fishworkers include high occupational risk (from accidents, lack of strong and effective organizations and the strongly gendeved narure of ising activities

“More beoadls, there are many other factors that contribute to vulnerability in small scale fisheries, inclvding: high exposure to natural disasters (eq floods, hurricanes) hig exposure to changes in macro-economic fctors (eg, fuel and other input prices, fish prices"); powerlessness and socal, economic and political marginalization: increasingly high exposure to conflicts with other wsers (including industrial fishing fleets, but also other coastal zone land and sea users) duc :o increased competition for resources: and most reeently to HIV/AIDS, especially in Afri and Southeast Asia For all these reasons its recognized that fishing related communities are probably: among the most vulnerable socio-economic working groups, in particule in developing ountries where both institutional and human capacities to address the inherent uncertainty of fishing activity ate lower chan in developed countries These issues are considered further in the following sections, keeping in mind the three main elements that contribute to vulnerability ~ risk exposure sensitivity and adaptive capacity as dlscussed earlier in section 13

2242 Is vulnerability in small-scale fisheries increasing?

Some fishing communities may be less vulnerable now than in the past due to developments and ongoing improvement to education, hovsing, socal or community

‘organization, communications (eg mobile phones) nd technological developments These technologies and services may serve ro reduce isk exporare (eg the use of mobile phones to get market price information, access weather forecasts oF even Facilitate rescue) and reduce sensitivity (eg provision of the means to diversity and

“The ir tha lamers in apricot conta dhe ee cyte of production dana prove the velcebily ofth relonsp betwen tine ad tues vented etn epee {in mporantadtanage a somparion wo epare hai Nevertheless ha aqencase

ok may becomparle taper rok Tegel recognize dar ches eps avi amalscle— ae pice ker

Contato, ral a importa of mal eae bere in poverty alleviation and fod scat

reduce fishery dependence through education) and inerease adaprive capacity (eg, the

provision of social and financial safety nets by community organiaations that allow

households to survive episodic shocks), However access to such improvements is not

‘evenzthe poor are known ta be generally slower in adopting new technologies, and when

adopted, it can also have negative impacts in terms of inereasing indebtedness While

Fishing communities are often relatively cash rich compared to farming communities,

as noted above, they remain vulnerable o sudden changes/loss of earnings due 10

_gencrlly low levels of access to socal services and politcal structures and processes

‘As suggested in some of the literature (eg Geheb and Binns, 1997; Andersson and

gaz, 1998; Sach and Allison, 2001), these area sumber of reasons why vulnerability

in fishing communities may be ineeasing, some of whieh include:

* Reduced fish stock levels asa result of overfishing in an increasing number of

world’ fisheries, At the present time, few of the world’s Fisheries are not fully

exploited of overexploited (FAO, 2004a) Overfshing by industrial and smal

sce fisheries may be the cesule of overcapacity, o changing wses of fish catch,

For example, in some eegions, much of the catch is now landed as trash fish or

4s feed for aquaculture or livestock feed Worsening stock status has an impact

fon vulnerability by increasing competition for fewer resources, and thereby

requiring small-scale fishers co fish further offshore or spend longer at sea This

in tar inereases costs, the likelihood of accidents at sea, and arrests if vessels

stray into the waters of neighbouring countries (ie increased risk exposure and

sensitivity),

* Greater pressure on water resource use, Construction of hydropower dams and

increasing use of water for irrigated agriculture has led t0 + sigaiicant increase in

‘competition for inland water in many countries, impacting on riverine ecospstems

and the associated fishing communities, At che same me, many coastal seas and

inland waters bodies have become increasingly polluted with greater urbanization

and industialzation, resulting n deteriorating water quality anda subsequent impact

‘on esource produetvity increase sk exposure and reduced adaptive capacity),

* Climatic change With globsl warming, climatic fluctuations are inceessing,

‘vith fsherflk potentially exposed to greater variability and extremes in eaifal,

Flooding and drought, inter alia (see Box 12) In addition, overall increases in

tempersture have different impacts on vulnerability in different regions: stall

islands states are especialy at risk from flooding and rising sea levels, wheress

countries with important inland fisheries may be hard hie by reduced average

rainfall levels reducing ive flows, lke levels and floodplain ateas

sIncreasing prevalence of HIV/AIDS in fishery communities Fishing

‘communities are among the most severely affected by the HIV/AIDS epidemic in

‘many parts of the world, The general reasons for this situation are thought to lie

Migration/esettlement in response to fluctuating lake levels

Lake levels can fictonte significantly, with considerable impacts ony and responses

by fishing communities Fishing communities of Lake Chad moved canwards during

‘the 1979s and 198s, in some cases more than onc, asthe lke levels dropped and the

‘maximum extent reached by the lake each year receded eastwards: Moreover, ike drying

Jin Lake Chilis in Malawi in 1967-1968 resulted in around 20 fishes migrating nesehy

Lake Malombe and others co Lake Malawi

Seno Sch Bit, 200 Sen an Allon 20,

n