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SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

Bakht Baidar Khan

Arshad Iqbal Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa

Department of Livestock Management

University of Agriculture Faisalabad

2003

The past more than half a century is a witness to the fact that except a few, no serious attempts have been made to write books even on a few of the so many wide open aspects of the field of animal sciences Among other factors that keep the animal science sector lagging behind, utter lack of relevant books of local origin is probably the most important The dearth of documented information concerning various species of our farm animals adversely affects the learning potential of our students, who have been reported to complain about the non-availability of professional books written in Pakistan I personally feel that as animal scientists we cannot exonerate ourselves of this responsibility Of course, not all of us would have the aptitude to write books However, those who opt to take up this tiresome and time-consuming job, their efforts must be appreciated We must not forget that beginnings are always small

It is really encouraging to learn that sheep and goats being the victims of a long neglect, have attracted the attention of experienced animal scientists and teachers of long standing to write a book on them A look into the contents of the book ‘Sheep and Goat Production’, makes me believe that it would adequately serve the purpose for which it has been produced Its made-easy format would be rather more helpful to the students, field workers and progressive farmers A collection of over 650 questions along with their answers should more than suffice to cover the discussion on important topics in relation to sheep and goat production

Director General (Ext.)

L & DD Dept., Punjab

PREFACE

Innumerable publications on sheep and goat farming/production are there in the world market More than 98% of them are of foreign origin and are thus either not available here or their prices are beyond the means of a common man The book under discussion has not been produced to burden the market with another such publication rather it has been brought out employing a novice format to meet the requirements of beginners who venture to plan a small ruminant enterprise, but are found confronted with a series of questions Answers to many of such questions are already embodied in this ‘easy to read and understand’ book In addition, feasibilities in respect of keeping sheep and goats (pertaining to one breed of each spp.) have been outlined herein to facilitate the solution of their input: output dilemma

Another section of society most pertinent to books is professional students community It often happens that even at the end of an academic session/semester, many students in a class, would not know what type of questions, relevant to a course, may be asked in the Exam This book, for sure, would create an awareness in them as to the type of Exam questions and as to the manner of answering them Among other features of the book are: the discussion on behaviour and welfare of small ruminants and clues on the application

of biotechnology in animals A comprehensive review on terminology related to various aspects of small ruminants is also a part of this book Most of the answers to the questions included in this book have been picked up as such from various sources of literature listed under references at the end We feel highly obliged in sharing the fruit of hardwork of those so many authors/editors Under the circumstances it does not seem possible for us to individually convey to them our grateful thanks, but indeed we remain indebted to all

of them

No book will ever be complete and this one is no exception since knowledge about sheep and goats is increasing so rapidly that no book can be an absolute ultimate We feel no hesitation to mention here that at places details of a few most sophisticated techniques used abroad in small ruminant production have been intentionally avoided simply because farmers/producers here have yet to go a long way to enable themselves to take full advantage of such costly tools and techniques

We would like to record our thanks to our colleagues, namely Drs Muhammad Younas, Muhammad Abdullah, Muhammad Yaqoob, Syed Hassan Raza and Prof William Hohenboken, a friend from USA; all of them provided us a lot of useful literature for this book Special thanks are extended to Mr Farooq Ahmed, Dr Akhter Saeed and Dr Asad Saeed for arranging recent literature for the purpose from abroad

Suggestions in black and white from any quarter to effect further improvement and to remove any omissions in the contents of this book will always be welcome

Arshad Iqbal Muhammad Iqbal Mustafa

PART- III includes following contents of the book:

• INTERNAL PARASITES IN SHEEP AND GOATS

• EXTERNAL PARASITES

• MEDICATION

• HOOF CARE

• RANGE SHEEP AND GOAT PRODUCTION

• HOUSING AND HANDLING FACILITIES

• DAIRY GOATS

• MEAT

• WOOL

• MOHAIR

INTERNAL PARASITES IN SHEEP AND GOATS

Q In what way the internal parasites harm the sheep/goats?

There are reports that indicate that sheep and goats are comparatively more resistant to bacterial and viral diseases, but more susceptible to internal parasites Another report suggests that goats as compared to sheep are less prone to parasitic infestations A weekend condition from parasite infestation can be a principal cause of a disease outbreak A heavy load of parasites is a vicious cycle leading to undernourishment of the animals, making them further vulnerable to parasite damage The highest death loss occurs in lambs/kids, yearlings and extremely old animals, with death loss higher in poorly fed animals Internal parasites (Figure 19) reduce productivity, cause anaemia, bottle jaw, coughing, bronchitis, wool break, progressive weakness reduced milk yield and death

Q Can sheep/goats develop some degree of immune resistance to worms?

The development of a degree of resistance to worm loads in old animals results from constant exposure to migrating worm larvae over time because the larval proteins act as a form of vaccination against the larvae This immunity is actually the development of antibodies that cause allergic reactions A mini-allergic reaction occurs in the tissues surrounding the encysted worm larvae, in which a combination of smooth muscle contractions and fluids cause the parasites to be dislodged and expelled into the lumen of the intestine Then they pass out with the faeces This partial immunity to worms takes about two years to develop fully This explains why older ewes/does do not accumulate

as much worm burden as lambs/kids in the same pasture and younger animals must be dewormed more often than the older population

Q Discuss briefly the life cycle of worms

For specific and detailed information about life cycles of various internal parasites, you are referred to a text book on Parasitology Here the life cycle will be dealt in very general terms More than twelve species of parasites are considered responsible for causing problems in sheep/goats They live in true stomach, small and large intestines, lungs and liver where they feed on blood and body fluids, causing anaemia and serum loss Millions of eggs from these parasites pass out with faeces, with cough and under favourable conditions of warm weather and moisture, hatch into infective larvae in about

5 to 7 days These larvae migrate into the moist sections of the grass and are ingested more by sheep than goats (probably due to their habit of grazing close to ground surface) Once swallowed they invade the tissues of digestive tract etc where they undergo a maturing stage and emerge as adult worms in about 21 days Most of the eggs and/or larvae are killed under conditions of hot dry weather and severe cold temperatures, which largely helps sterilize the pasture However, nature has provided a survival mechanism for these worms that allows them to survive periods of adverse conditions by hibernating

as immature worms in tissues and then emerge weeks or months later when conditions for survival are more favourable

Q Suggest measures that can help reduce parasite load of small ruminants

Population density appears to be the main contributory factor for heavy parasite loads A small number of animals on a given area will deposit less eggs than a large number on the same area By rotating animals from one pasture to another, you can allow time for worm larvae to die from age and exposure on the recently contaminated grass The eggs/larvae

of many stomach worms can survive three months in cool damp weather but much less in dry hot weather An old Scottish rule of thumb is ‘Never let the church bell strike thrice

on the same pasture’ Overstocking of pastures cuts down the feed supply which weakens the animals It also causes them to graze the grass more closely, ingesting more larvae to increase their worm load Animals in poor nutritional condition cannot tolerate as much worm load as well nourished can Lack of proper diet, insufficient protein and incorrect balance of nutritional elements, including vitamins and minerals (such as Se), makes them more vulnerable to worm damage

Another step toward better parasite control is sanitation Never put feed directly on the ground to avoid contamination Make sure that the water supply is clean and protected from faecal contamination It is necessary to be able to recognize symptoms of worm build up and carry out an adequate control programme using appropriate medicines

Q What are the more appropriate time periods for deworming sheep/goats?

With the development of safer and more effective deworming drugs, deworming can be carried out without harming ewes/does or their youngones Ewes and may be does too should be dewormed at the beginning of the flushing period i.e two to three weeks before breeding With higher parasite loads they will not settle properly and will have protracted lambing/kidding period They will produce fewer twins and more weak newborns and will have less milk for them Pregnant animals with more worms are drained of needed energy Their weakness leaves them more susceptible to pneumonia or pregnancy disease and too weak to withstand a difficult delivery Post parturition rise in parasite load also takes place, which is due to hormonal changes that trigger the encysted larvae to wake up and complete their life cycle A similar rise in worm burden also occurs in breeding male, more so in ram than buck, as spring approaches This refers to the worm’s survival mechanism already mentioned in a foregoing question/answer Therefore, deworming at three weeks postparturition is advisable It helps save the ewe/doe energy for milk production which otherwise could have been wasted by worms In climates where worm infestations can occur during gestation, it may be necessary to deworm two to three weeks prior to lambing/kidding However, at this late stage handle the pregnant animals carefully since the stress of catching and deworming may trigger some problem Levamisole or Ivomec is good for this late pregnancy deworming, because they have some effect against hypobiotic (arrested) and migrating larvae Other vermifuges kill only the adult forms, allowing the migrating larvae to become active the day following deworming For the most part, deworming medicines have no residual activity They are only good the day you give them Next day the immature larvae are free to build up the worm burden all over again

In most small ruminant-rearing areas, the worm population is severely depressed during severe winter months This then means that about 90% of the parasite population is in the sheep/goat with 10% on the pasture When these animals gain access to the pasture during favoruable weather, the ratio reverses Thus the most suitable time to exhaust the new season’s worm population is to reduce it as much as possible in the sheep/goats prior

to grazing season so that these animals cannot transfer or seed the population back to the

pasture The animals should be dewormed three days before turning them out on pasture

so that the worm eggs excreted in the faeces can fall outside the barn where the larvae cannot survive

In areas where the grass begins to dry, deworming the animals at that time, then followed

up with another deworming six weeks later, will reduce the worm load below harmful levels The hot dry weather significantly reduces the larvae population in the pasture, thus reducing the infection rate in the animals It is also helpful to move animals to a clean pasture 24 to 48 hours after deworming, to keep the pasture clean

Young lambs/kids sent to pasture with their dams pick up worms that will grow to maturity in about a month As the worms increase they cause anaemia and even death You can prevent anaemia by deworming the lambs/kids at about 2½ to 3 months of age When rotating pastures, let the lambs/kids graze each clean pasture ahead of the ewes/does

Q Suggest an economical parasite reduction mixture

An economical and popular mixture is 6 kg trace mineralized salt, 3 kg dicalcium phosphate and 1 kg phenothiazine This low-level feeding of phenothiazine keeps worm eggs from developing properly The killing of eggs and larvae cuts down on the source of parasite infection on the pasture No immediate results will be seen, as it does not affect the eggs and larvae on the pasture However, over a period of time there will be fewer worm larvae on the pasture to reinfect the animals

Q What symptoms are commonly observed as a result of parasite infestation in

small ruminants

One visible sign of parasite infestation is bottle jaw (swelling under the jaw) It is a sort warning that the animals have severe attack of worms Other symptoms are diarrhoea (for some kind of worms) and anaemia (for most kinds of worms) Anaemia is indicated by the very pale colour of the inner lower eyelids and gums caused by intestinal worms sucking the animal’s blood There are eight or more kinds of small stomach worms (round worms) that cause anaemia but not diarrhoea The animals become listless, with pale mucous membranes and lose condition, wasting away and dying if they are not dewormed The small brownish stomach worm ‘ostertagia’ causes scours It is so perfectly camouflaged against the walls of sheep’s small intestine that it is difficult to spot in a postmortem

Other symptoms are accelerated breathing, coughing, and discharge from nose, bronchitis and pneumonia caused by lungworms Liver flukes may cause bottle jaw, pot-belly etc

Q In what different forms deworming drugs may be administered to small

ruminants?

Most infestations involve more than one kind of parasites, the broad-spectrum deworming drugs are recommended for general deworming One of the several major broad-spectrum, low-toxicity vermifuges will take care of the most prevalent of the stomach parasites

For dosage and method of administration (as well as withdrawal days before slaughter) follow label directions Deworming drugs are given as: boluses, these are sort of large⎯ sized pills, may be given by hand, by a bolus gun or with a capsule forceps; drenches, these are given by a drenching gun if the flock is of large size, for a small flock use a handy 2-ounce dose syringe; powders or granules, these are mixed with salt and dicalcium phosphate and offered to the animals free choice; premixes, these are given

mixed in feed; paste, this can be smeared on the animal’s tongue; injection, be sure to follow label directions as to the site for injection, type of injection and the dosage as given for sheep/goat weight

Q Give a list of the deworming drugs (for sheep and goats) that are in common

use the world over

It cannot be a complete list since recent and new drugs keep on coming in the market, at the same time the use of certain drugs is abandoned in certain countries Drugs under different brand names are also locally produced The list given below includes such drugs that have been found safe, effective and easily available in the market:

• Tramisol (Levamisole): Effective against three species of stomach worms, six

species of intestinal worms and a lung worm, safe for pregnant animals (after first 30 days), for older lambs/kids as well Marketed as oblets (bigger pills), drench or injection

• Thiabendazole (TBZ) (Omnizole R): For stomach, small and large intestine

worms, sold as bolus, paste, drench or feed additive

• Phenothiazine: Now not considered a standard treatment However, pheno is

excellent for continuous low-level use, mixed into your salt formula

• Ivomec (Ivermectin): Sold as injection or drench, effective against stomach,

small and large intestine and lung worms, blood-sucking lice and keds (ticks), not effective against tapeworms

• Fenbenzadole (panacur, safegard): Safe and effective against stomach, small

and large intestine worms, lungworms and tapeworms

• Equipar (Oxibendazole): The same as Fenbenzadole but does not kill

tapeworms

• Telmin (Mebendazole): Effective against stomach, small and large intestine

worms, some effect on tapeworms and liver flukes

• Curatrem (Clorsulon): Excellent for developing and adult flukes, if liver much

damaged then recovery not complete

• Rumatel (Moratel tartret): Effective for small and large intestine worms as

well as stomach worms

• Bovatec (Lasalocid): For prevention of coccidiosis

• Deccox (Decoquinate): Prevents coccidiosis, used in free-fed salt/mineral

by other animals This problem needs consideration when buying sheep/goats from a farm or an area having low-lying pastures Tramisol given once a year should control lungworms Ivomec and Fenbenzadole are also effective

Tapeworms: The feeding head of the tapeworm injures the intestine and is thought to

facilitate absorption of toxin involved in enterotoxaemia Tapeworms are not usually the primary worm infestation in small ruminants, but since the passed tapeworm segments are large enough, their presence in droppings becomes alarming A moderate level of tapeworms is said to be of little damage to adult animals but can seriously retard the growth of youngones Fenbenzadole (Panacur, Safegard) is effective against tapeworms

Q Write a note on each of the three: Nose bots, Liver flukes and Coccidiosis in

small ruminants

Nose Bots: The nose bot, Oestrus ovis, is a fly in its mature form, dark grey about the

size of a bee The full grown larvae are thick yellowish white grubs about 2.5 cm with dark transverse bands and found primarily in the frontal sinuses of sheep When deposited by the fly on the edge of the nostril, the grub is about 2 mm and gradually moves up the nasal passages During fly season, sheep will put their heads to ground, stamp and run with heads down to avoid fly They press their noses to the ground or against other sheep, as the flies attack them This is more observed in the heat of the day and in hot summer The head grubs cause irritation in nostrils, sinuses resulting in inflammation which causes a thin and then a thick secretion The mucous membranes are affected and the secretions thicken, the sheep thus have difficult breathing and may sneeze frequently They become run-down because of being so much annoyed by flies that they cannot graze in peace Ivomec R has but a slow effect on nose bots, taking about thirty days before they are all dead, decamped and sneezed out

Liver Flukes: They require an intermediate host i.e part of their life cycle is spent in

another creature In case of flukes it is snail or slug, found on wet marshy land Ponds, ditches or swampy land provide the breeding place for the snails Therefore, this kind of pasture is not suitable for small ruminants If possible drain out wet areas where snails propagate or put fence around marshy parts Snail-destroying chemicals can be used if these do not harm fish, other livestock or human beings A mixture containing 1 kg copper sulphate with 4 kg of sand can give good control of flukes About 350 g of this mixture may be applied twice a month per hectare of pasture Liver flukes cause bottle jaw or pot-belly during early stages, followed by loss of condition, diarrhoea, further, weakness and death It can be diagnosed by microscopic examination of faeces and from the liver of slaughtered small ruminants Affected livers must be discarded Merck’s curatrem (clorsulon) kills developing flukes as well as adults and is especially useful for animals treated in early stages of infestation

Coccidiosis: Coccidia are microscopic protozoan parasites, present in most flocks

without causing any serious problem Overcrowding and contamination of food and water are the main sources of infection Other factors are chilling, heat stress, transportation fatigue and sudden change in feed as well as interruption of feeding which predispose the young stock to an outbreak of coccidiosis, resulting in diarrhoea, then diarrhoea with straining, chronic dark green or bloody diarrhoea, loss of appetite and some deaths Lambs/kids that recover are usually considered immune A routine faecal examination showing evidence of this parasite will allow you to use appropriate drug at an early stage Once coccidiosis is diagnosed (or be before as a preventive), Bovatec may be used as a feed additive Antibiotics can be given to check any secondary bacterial infection in intestines damaged by coccida Amprolium 1.25% can be prescribed and fed for 21 days during an attack Meat fed to dogs and cats that associate with livestock should be

previously cooked or frozen to render these parasites (in muscle tissue of cattle, sheep or goat) noninfectious

Q Discuss worm resistance to drugs used for deworming

The problem of parasite control has somewhat been compounded by the development of resistance in selected worm species to some worm-control products All populations of living things contain individuals that naturally possess a greater resistance to something than the average population Possible dewormer resistance increases with the frequency

of treatment because we keep killing off the susceptible worms and leaving the possible resistant ones to regenerate the population Keep in mind that if you must deworm very frequently, you are increasing selection pressure on the worm population and resistance may become a problem sooner for you than for your neighbour who needs to deworm less often

The old recommendation to change dewormer drugs often to avoid developing resistance

is wrong It is now recommended to use the same vermifuge until you see resistance becoming a problem, then switch to another dewormer If you must change a vermifuge,

do not alternate with a dewormer of the same chemical family or class Resistance usually develops on chemical class lines, not brand names Read the fine print for the generic name or chemical class The more effective a dewormer is on several different species (broad-spectrum), the less chance of selection for resistant strains Do not underdose the dewormer, because natural resistance is rarely an all-or-none phenomenon;

it is a dose-related thing By underdosing you may allow a marginally resistant worm to survive and propagate offspring with greater natural resistance, when it might have been susceptible to the full dose With a highly effective drug, the worm numbers become so depleted that they lack the genetic variability required for selection for resistance in a short time

To know for sure whether you have worm resistance to the drug you are using, you need egg counts If egg counts are taken just before and then one week after administration of the correct dose, and the percentage decrease in the egg count is les than 80%, the presence of anthalmintic-resistant parasites must be strongly suspected To avoid introducing resistant strains, you would need to treat all incoming new animals

EXTERNAL PARASITES

Among the external parasites are included ticks, wool maggots (fleeceworms), common scab mite, lice etc

Q Are sheep ticks real ticks? Give a brief account of them and discuss measures

for their eradication

No! Sheep tick is not a real tick rather it is a wingless parasitic fly, known as a sheep ked that passes its whole life cycle on the body of the sheep It lays little brown pupae, which hatch into almost mature keds in about nineteen days Ticks are bloodsuckers and roam all over the sheep, puncturing the skin to obtain their food As a result firm dark nodules develop, damaging the sheep skin and thus reducing its value These defects are called

‘cockles’ by leather traders The ticks produce such irritation that sheep rub and scratch and injure their wool and bite at themselves to relieve there suffering, sometimes becoming habitual wool chewers From eating the wool they may get impacted rumens Ticks reduce weight gain and cause anaemia All this ultimately impairs the quality and yield of wool and meat Ticks stain the wool with their faeces Such wool is sometimes referred to as ‘dingy’ and does not readily scour out

With systematic treatment ticks can be easily eradicated The mature tick lays a single puparia a week and thus a total of about a dozen or so in her lifetime The pupa shells are attached to the wool nearly 1½ to 2½ cm from the skin Thus most of them are removed

in shearing, making it easy to eliminate ticks by treating after shearing The newly hatched ticks die within an hour unless they can suck blood from a sheep The mature tick cannot survive more than two to four days away from the sheep To be effective, all sheep must be treated for ticks at one time; otherwise the untreated ones will pass the ticks back to the treated Examine a new lamb or sheep before turning it in with your own and treat it if you find even a single tick Following are the methods commonly used for treating sheep to eliminate ticks from their bodies

Dip: This is a standard method used with large flocks The sheep are run through large

dipping vats full of sheep dipping liquid or through spraying vats, where they are given a high-powered spray from several sides at once This is done usually ten days after shearing while the wool is still short and the shearing injuries have healed For a small flock this method is not practicable Their deticking requires small dipping vats or some other method such as spray or sprinkle may be used (details of dipping to be discussed elsewhere)

Spray or Sprinkle: Low-pressure sprays are ideal for treating sheep when they have

been sheared recently as stated under dip method

Sprinkling with insecticide solution in a garden sprinkler can, requires very little equipment

Injection: Ivomec (Ivermectin) dewormer is effective against most internal and external

parasites including ticks It is not effective against tapeworms, flukes or biting lice

Q Give a list of effective sheep ked control chemicals along with brief

instructions for their use

Ectrin, Expar, Atroban: These are synthetic pyrethroids (a stable form of the garden

insecticide made from the chrysanthemum) They are considered both safe and effective Used for both ked and lice control as a pour-on or spray No label withdrawal period prior to slaughter

Ivomec: This is effective against keds (ticks) and sucking lice Consult label for

withdrawal times

Co-Ral (Coumaphos): A systemic organophosphate Used as a 0.6% spray or dip, or a

0.5% dust (1 to 2 ounces per sheep) Not to be used on lambs under three months of age

Diazinon: Used as a 0.5% spray or dip Not to be used on lambs under one month age

Rotenone: It is the powdered root of a tropical plant and an insecticide used by organic gardeners For dip use 8 ounces of the 5% wettable powder to 100 gallons of water (1½ ounces in 20 gallon can) Mix it to a paste in a small amount of water and add it to the large quantity of water in the can stirring well The addition of a small amount of liquid dishwashing detergent will make it more penetrating and effective Safe for ewes and lambs For dusting use 1.5% (garden type) dust about 2 ounces per sheep The effect of Rotenone is not immediate It takes a few hours to show its effect Ticks no longer can bite and will die

Official regulations on chemicals can change from year to year, as new chemicals are approved, some old may be banned or tolerances change The concerned agency may be consulted for a current list of such products

Q Give a brief account of wool maggots (fleeceworms) and suggest measures to

prevent them

Several types of blowflies lay maggot eggs and they all are about twice the size of houseflies They appear in spring and then reproduce through hot weather, laying their eggs in masses at the edge of a wound or in manure-soiled fleeces The eggs hatch in six

to twelve hours and the larvae feed on the live flesh at the edge of the wound They enlarge the wound and if not detected, can eventually kill the animal Watch for moist fleece areas or any injury that may become infested Notice if animals scratch excessively

on fences, trees, and gateposts This could be maggots or ticks When you locate an infestation, clip the wool around it and spray it with any of the fly-strike aerosol sprays (or one of the sheep tick chemicals can substitute for fly repellent) If none of these is available, pick out all the maggots you can see and disinfect the wound The animal should be kept under observation for a few days and may be treated again if needed Shearing the sheep would make it easier to spot other infestations Maggots often infest dog bites if your sheep are chased by dogs, check them often for unnoticed wounds and fly-strikes The wool maggot or fleeceworm can be distinguished from the more dangerous screwworm Wool maggots can move and crawl around, while the screwworms do not, since they are imbedded in the flesh

Prevention Measures :1) Keep rear ends of ewes regularly tagged, especially when droppings become loose Deworm your sheep regularly Urine also attracts blowflies if it soils heavy tags; 2) Treat all cuts or shearing injuries with fly repellents during hot weather, even insect bites invite flies; 3) Put fly repellent on castration sites on lambs in warm weather; 4) Possibly use fly traps or other means to cut down the number of flies in the barn; 5) Be especially vigilant during prolonged wet weather in summer Warm and

moist conditions more favourable for fly strike If by chance whole of the flock has maggot problem, use Atroban or Expar- the sheep dip chemicals on all of them

Q Write a note on each of the two, i) common scab mite and ii) lice

Common Scab Mite: Several kinds of parasitic mites produce scab in sheep The

Psoroptes ovis is the common scab mite, a little more than ½ mm long, with four pairs of

brownish legs and sharp pointed brownish mouthparts The mites puncture the skin and live on the blood serum The skin becomes inflamed, then scabby with a grey scaly crust The wool falls out, leaving large bare areas This may not be confused with the loss of wool that sometimes occurs along the backbone of some breeds of sheep when kept in areas of heavy rainfall To determine whether mites are present, scrape the other edge of one of the scabs (mites seek the healthy skin at the edge of the lesions) and put the scrapings on a piece of black paper In a warm room under bright light, examine the paper with a magnifying glass The mites become more active when warm and are visible under the glass Any infestation with common scab mite (often called mange mite) is very susceptible to Expar, Atroban or Ectrin These are effective as a spray and can even

be used on pregnant ewes All sheep must be treated in one session since the mite is quite contagious from sheep to sheep Infected premises should not be used for clean sheep for thirty days

Lice: These are probably second to ticks (keds) among the common ectoparasites

affecting sheep and goats One species of biting lice and several species of sucking lice affect small ruminants The eggs are attached to the individual wool/hair fibres and hatch

in one to two weeks into the nymph stage After several molts which require another two

to three weeks, the nymphs emerge as adults The feeding lice (sucking) cause intense irritation and itching to the sheep/goats which results in restlessness, constant scratching and rubbing against walls, trees, fences, interrupted feeding, loss of weight and severe damage to wool/hair A clear-cut sign of lice in the flock are hundreds of telltale tags of wools hanging from fences, trees etc where the sheep have been rubbing Lice are very susceptible to the commonly used insecticides but often two treatments are needed to kill any newly emerged nymphs (as the egg is a protected stage) Once removed from the flock, they will not return until you introduce new/more infested animals into the flock If

in doubt, you must treat any new animals prior to placing with your flock The pyrethroid products such as Atroban, Ectrin, Expar, do an excellent job of ridding the flock of lice and are safe to use

MEDICATION

Q From a flock of 80 sheep/goats, how would you detect a sick sheep/goat?

Successful treatment of any sheep/goat illness requires detection as early as possible, before the animal is down Gone are the days when it was said that “a down sheep is a dead sheep”, but the chance for recovery is much better if illness is diagnosed and treated before it has progressed Prevention is always better than treatment and early treatment has better success than late

For early detection of a sick animal you must be familiar with its normal behaviour, even for each individual in the flock, to know when one is acting abnormally Have some quick and easy way of catching the animal (such as a corral) when needed for its close examination Signs of abnormality are loss of appetite, not eating as usual and standing away from the group when at rest; unusual discharge from nostrils, eyes or mouth Be concerned if a sheep/goat is lying down most of the time when others are not; any weakness or staggering gait; unusually laboured or fast breathing; change in bowel movements (loose faeces or constipated); temperature over 104 degrees Normal temperature of small ruminants (except in very hot weather) is in the range of 100.9 to 103.0°F degrees (average 102.3 degrees) If it is necessary to have a urine sample, try to hold the sheep’s/goat’s nostrils closed for a moment; this stress sometimes triggers urination

Q In general, what may be the possible causes of illness of sheep/goats?

Some of the common causes of illness are: Unsanitary housing, lack of exercise, moldy

or spoiled feeds, poisonous plants, toxic substances improper diet (insufficient/ contaminated water and feed or overeating), parasites, injuries, infection from assisted lambing/kidding, bacterial infection from other sick sheep/goats, abrupt change of feed, stress due to severe weather, transportation, predators etc and infection from newly purchased animals

Q Give a list of common sources of germ transmission to sheep/goats

• Water or feed contaminated by faeces from small ruminants or other animals,

can transmit intestinal diseases and certain parasites Respiratory disease may also be spread by nasal discharge into drinking water and feeding troughs

• Manure accumulated in a lambing/kidding shed or around the feeding trough

can intensify exposure to disease germs and coccidiosis; serve as breeding media for flies and other vermin

• Dirty uncrotched wool on an ewe can infect the newborn

• Feeding on bare ground greatly contributes to disease and parasite exposure

• Wet muddy places predispose the sheep/goats to hoof diseases

• Low-lying marshy areas predispose the sheep/goats to a number of parasitic

diseases

• Newly acquired animals can be carriers of many serious diseases such as foot

rot and brucellosis as well as ticks and lice

• Venereal transmission of disease at breeding time

• Dirty hypodermic syringes and needles can cause injection site infections and

abscesses and transmit certain infectious diseases

Q To meet emergencies in respect of small ruminants farm/in field, what

medicines and equipment need to be on hand?

It may be referred to as a First Aid Kit It should at least include bloat medication (and trocar cannula for extreme emergency), cal-phos or any other preparation for milk fever, propylene glycol for pregnancy toxaemia, tincture iodine and other disinfectants, mineral oil for constipation, dextrose solution, antibiotics, uterine boluses and some sterile equipment (syringes, needles etc.) Of the antibiotics pen-strep (Penicillin-dihydrostreptomycin) (or any other recent one) will check many infections For specific infections, other antibiotics are necessary Penicillin and tetracycline are safe to use since their toxicity in sheep/goats is extremely low These drugs are of use in pneumonia, infection after parturition and as a preventive against infection following cleaning and dressing of maggot infestation These are of minor help for enterotoxaemia Certain drugs labeled for buffalo/cattle can be used for small ruminants in an emergent situation Such a drug can be administered at the same dose level on per kg body weight basis On average, the dose for one buffalo/cow would suffice for five to six adult sheep/goats However, with many drugs exact dosage is very important Help of a competent veterinarian may preferably be sought

Q Give a list of methods used for administering medicines, vaccines etc

Oral, by mouth such as boluses for deworming with bolus gun or capsule forceps Oral, powder such as vitamins, placed well back on the tongue for treatment of an individual animal, or in feed or drinking water for general treatment of whole flock Oral, liquid given as drench with syringe or in drinking water Spray-on, such as insecticides for ticks Pour-on, such as tincture of iodine on newborn navel, disinfectant on minor wounds Subcutaneous, medication injected just under the skin Intradermal, medication injected into the skin Intramuscular, liquid such as antibiotics injected into heavy muscle Pessaries, as uterine boluses to prevent infection after a difficult lambing/kidding Intramammary, injection of fluid or ointment through the teat opening,

as mastitis drugs Intraperitoneal, injection of liquid through right flank into the abdominal cavity Intraruminal, injection of fluid into the rumen, on the left side, as for bloat treatment when too late to give by mouth Intranasal, spraying of vaccine into the nasal cavity Intravenous, injection of fluid into a vein Intraperitoneal, intraruminal and intravenous medication should preferably be given by a veterinarian or by an experienced person

Q Give some details of administering drugs etc by oral method

Boluses (small or large pills) meant for small ruminants will go down the throat easier if coated with mineral oil or cooking oil or mustard oil Do not soak them otherwise they will disintegrate The easiest way to hold the sheep/goat is to back it into a corner and straddle it, facing forward Hold the bolus in a bolus applicator/balling gun (Figure 20) and eject it when you have the pill over the hump of the tongue Capsule forceps can be used to deposit the bolus at the base of the tongue However, forceps is more likely to damage the throat Forceful jamming of the bolus too deep into the throat can cause the bolus to be deposited into the windpipe (trachea) with fatal results Keep the mouth of the animal open by inserting your left thumb in the mouth in the space between the front teeth (incisors) and the molars, while gently inserting the bolus gun with the other hand

Do not release the animal until you are sure that the medication has been swallowed

Liquid medicines can be given with a dose syringe or a drenching gun or with a dose gun when there are large number of animals in a flock (Figure 21) The nozzle of the syringe should be about 12 to 15 cm long with a smoothly rounded tip that will not injure the sheep/goat The head of the animal should be held in a level position, with the nose no higher than the eyes so that the liquid will not be forced into the lungs and cause pneumonia The safest way is to trickle the liquid slowly while holding the animal’s head

in the level position (Figure 22)

Q Give a detailed account of general information regarding the use of injections

as a method for administering medicines to small ruminants

To avoid serious infections, maintenance of sterile procedures is a must Use only clean and sterile syringes (boiled at least twenty minutes) and sharp sterile disposable needles Boiling of needles again and again makes them dull Disposable plastic syringes are the best To fill a syringe with medicine, first clean the top of the vial with a disinfectant to remove any dirt Shake the bottle to thoroughly mix the contents without causing undue bubbles Hold the vial upside down, pull the syringe plunger back to approximately the volume of drug to be removed, insert the needle into the center of vial stopper and press the plunger forcing the air into the vial Withdraw a greater volume of drug than needed and then express the excess drug back into the vial to remove air bubbles that may form

in the syringe

If you are withdrawing doses for a number of animals and particularly if you wish to save the balance of the contents of medication vial, you can protect it from contamination by sanitizing the top of the vial with a disinfectant as stated above, then insert a sterile needle, which is to be left in place in the stopper of vial Fill the syringe, leave the needle

in the bottle and attach a separate needle to the syringe for vaccinating For the next dose, detach the used needle, fill the syringe with the needle left in the vial, leaving again the needle in the bottle (vial) and reattach a new or disinfected needle for the injection In this way you can protect your medicine from any contamination and can save the balance

of the contents till its reuse You cannot, however, save a live vaccine (such as Nasalgen) Inactivated vaccine such as Covexin-8 may be saved

Once the needle is filled with medication, do not let it touch anything, or it will no longer

be sterile Possibly have a helper hold the sheep/goat and then inject the medicine after sterilizing the site of injection with an alcohol swab well rubbed over the site Simply touching the site with an alcohol swab is not sufficient

If at all possible, do not inject a wet animal for reasons of infection and contamination of injection site Read the label carefully on each injectable medicine Check the expiry date Read the dosage and strictly follow it because overdosing of certain medicines could be harmful or even fatal Protect drugs from freezing and from heat Many antibiotics require refrigeration

Q Write short notes on subcutaneous, intradermal and intramuscular

injections

Subcutaneous Injection: It is often abbreviated as ‘sub-cut; it denotes depositing

medicine directly between the skin and the underlying muscle tissue The medicine should be at body temperature, especially with youngones and can be given in the neck

A preferred site is in the loose hairless skin behind and below the armpits, over the chest wall Do not inject into the armpit Some vaccines are highly irritating and if injected into the maxillary space (armpit), could cause severe irritation and lameness A dosage of

more than 10 ml is best distributed among several sites instead of all at one place, especially so with lambs/kids To inject, pinch up a fold of loose skin, insert the needle into the space under the skin, holding the needle parallel to the body surface Rub the area afterward to distribute the medication and hasten its absorption Do not make the injection near a joint or in areas having more fat under the skin If you want to make sure that you are not in a vein, the plunger can be pulled out a bit before injecting If it draws out some blood, try another spot Medication for subcut should never be injected into a muscle

Intradermal Injection: Sometimes it is called as ‘intracutaneous’ This injection is made

into the skin instead of under it and is rarely used The inserted fine needle is so close to the surface that it can be seen through the outer layer of skin, in the same site as suggested for subcut injection The medicine is injected slowly while drawing out the needle, distributing the dose along the needle’s course

Intramuscular Injection: Using this injection the medicine is deposited deep into a large

muscle such as in the neck or heavy muscle of the thigh An experienced person can demonstrate the proper site that will avoid both a nerve and the best cuts of meat Fresh and sterile antibiotics and drugs are important, as are a sterile needle and sterile procedure to avoid risk of deep-seated infection Use a new sharp disposable needle and syringe to avoid tissue damage Sanitize the top of the vial stopper with alcohol before withdrawing the medicine into the syringe Thrust the needle quickly into the muscle while a helper holds the animal still Check that the needle is not in a blood vessel It is usually advisable not to inject more than 10 ml into any one spot

Q Write short notes on intramammary and intraperitoneal injections

Intramammary Injection: Infusion of liquids or ointments are sometimes administered

into the teat for udder ailments such as mastitis The nozzle of the tube of udder antibiotics is designed for buffalo/cattle and is difficult to use in sheep/goat, requiring care and patience Cleanliness is important when infusing the udder First milk out the affected side of the udder as completely as possible Afterwards wash your hands and the udder thoroughly, then carefully disinfect the teats several times a few minutes apart Dry the end of the teat(s) with a clean towel to avoid germs when the medicine is inserted Remove the cap of the infusion and gently insert it into the teat canal, maintaining the sterile procedure Squeeze the dose into the teat, then massage the dose upwards toward the base of the udder Most udder infections can be cured by antibiotics but unsanitary infusion techniques could introduce molds and fungi that are not sensitive to the antibiotics, resulting in a further complicated situation

Intraperitoneal Injection: This should be done by a person who is familiar with

anatomy of the animal and aseptic technique Complications such as peritonitis are common after this procedure One helper needs to hold the animal and straddle it just in front of the shoulders Clip the wool from the right flank in the shallow triangular depression below the spine, between the last rib and the point of hip bone Medication injected into the center of this depression goes into the peritoneal cavity Scrub the injection area with soap, rinse dry and then disinfect the skin with alcohol Medicine should be at the body temperature of sheep/goat A sterile 25 ml or 50 ml syringe and a sterile 16-gauge needle are required Disinfect the bottle stopper and complete the rest of the steps as stated earlier maintaining sterile procedure Hold the needle perpendicular to the skin, pointed toward the center of the body Inject quickly the full length of the needle

and eject the medicine If the needle does not insert easily, it may be clogged with a plug

of tissue, or may not be in the right place If so, withdraw the needle, replace it with a new one and try again Rub the injection site with a disinfectant afterwards

Q What are the antibiotics? Discuss briefly in a general way

Antibiotics is the general term for a group of products that either kill or seriously impair bacterial growth They are effective against many bacterial diseases Antibiotics are only effective when present in adequate concentration Low concentration (below recommended levels) or discontinuation of treatment too soon may fail to kill the more resistant bacteria present in the infection This could result in a relapse of the condition or more seriously a chronic infection, which could be difficult to treat due to bacterial resistance to the antibiotic

The availability of antibiotics should not encourage improper sanitary practices or treatment of diseases that can be prevented through proper management and vaccination There is a concern that improper use of antibiotics can give rise to new strains of drug-resistant bacteria that may pose a threat to both humans and animals Care must be exercised to ensure that antibiotics as well as other drugs are properly used, but not overused Mastitis and certain respiratory diseases are among the few examples in which there are no preventive vaccine substitutes for antibiotics While management practices can minimize the occurrence of mastitis etc antibiotics are needed once the infection is established Certain antibiotic dosage can upset normal body functions Some may sterilize the gut, making animals, susceptible to enteric upsets Many times antibiotics are used when they are of no benefit whatsoever, as in case of a disease caused by viruses When the exact cause of sickness is unknown, there is a temptation to give an injection, usually a broad-spectrum antibiotic, to see if it helps Ideally, any illness should have an accurate diagnosis first

Q What is meant by biologicals/vaccines? Explain in detail

Biologicals (vaccines, bacterins and toxoids) are intended solely for disease protection They have very little, if any, effect in treating the disease These immunizing agents are proteins called antigens that only stimulate the small ruminant’s immune system to produce protection against the particular disease It needs to be understood that vaccination and immunization are not the same thing, because administration of the antigen by vaccination will result in immunization only if the sheep’s/goat’s immune system is normal and functioning Vaccination must be accomplished well ahead of the period in which disease exposure may occur, because it takes approximately one month for maximum immunity to develop Very low levels of protection are observed at two to three weeks after vaccination and it can take up to forty-five days after the last dose of some vaccines for maximum protection Immunizing agents fall into four groups and all are commonly called vaccines:

Bacterins: Containing killed bacteria and/or fractions of the bacterial cell

Toxoids: Containing the inactivated toxins produced by bacteria, usually clostridial

organisms such as causing tetanus and overeating disease

Vaccines: Derived from viral agents

Anti-serums: Often called serums or antitoxins, are derived from the serum of hyperimmune animals, one that has received multiple doses of vaccine to confer a high and specific antibody level against the particular disease

Q Write short notes on vaccines, toxoids, bacterins and anti-serum

Vaccines: A vaccine is a modified live or killed biological preparation, which when

injected into the animal (or instilled intranasally as nasalgen,), stimulates the animal’s immune system to build its own protective antibodies Modified live vaccines (MLV) contain strains of virus that are incapable of causing the disease but still retain the immune-stimulating potential of the disease-causing strain MLV vaccines (with few exceptions) produce greater and longer protection than the inactivated (killed) virus vaccines It takes approximately two weeks for protection to appear and the immune response will maximize in about a month

Toxoids: These are solutions of inactivated toxins derived from bacteria that cause

disease by producing toxins that enter blood stream and cause severe tissue or nerve damage (such as tetanus, blackleg) Since it is the toxin produced by bacteria and not the bacteria themselves that cause disease Toxoids stimulate the animal to produce neutralizing antibodies against the toxin, thus protecting against their deadly effect

Bacterins: These are suspensions of bacteria grown in culture media and killed

chemically or by heat They are unable to produce disease and may be used without danger of spreading disease The bacteria used in the production of various bacterins are highly antigenic strains isolated from animals that have succumbed to the particular disease Bacterins are often suggested as an aid in establishing immunity to specific diseases Most bacterins require a primary (priming) injection followed by a booster in one to four weeks The actual protection is obtained following the booster injection Bacterins do not confer long-lasting immunity At the best maximum protection is usually for six months to a year between boosters

Anti-serum: Also called serum or antitoxin By injecting an anti-serum, antibodies

produced in another animal are borrowed to confer a temporary or passive immunity for a short period, often ten to twenty-one days It is used to protect animals for a short period when disease is present in the flock and to treat infected animals as an aid to overcome disease In a unique situation, anti-serum may be administered along with a vaccine to give immediate protection while the animal is developing its own active immunity It is advisable to consult a competent veterinarian under such circumstances, because in some instances the hyperimmune serum will neutralize the vaccine

Store all immunizing supplies in a cool place, but do not allow them to freeze Obtain vaccines from a reputable source, because if they are not properly stored or transported before you get them, they may be worthless

Some vaccines are applied by scratching the skin, some are subcut, others intramuscular and still others are sprays into the nasal cavity You must follow the directions of the manufacturer regarding both the dosage and the manner of administration Vaccination sites on sheep/goats and their youngones are the side of the breastbone i.e lower chest wall behind the elbow or the side of neck It is difficult to pinpoint that what vaccines are required by your flock because it depends on what part of the country you are, what diseases are prevalent there, presence of other flocks nearby, the climate, the type of operation, the purchase of new animals and the conditions under which the animals are being raised

Q Name some of the most useful immunizing agents for small ruminants that

are in use in New Zealand, Australia, Canada and USA

• Nasalgen-IP (P13): To protect against certain types of pneumonia and

respiratory diseases

• Footvax: Foot rot vaccine This product contains an oil adjuvant (immune

enhancer) that can cause injection site swellings and small abscesses Therefore be sure to inject high up on the side of the neck

• Covexin-8: It immunizes against all the common clostridial diseases including

tetanus

• EAE-Vibrio combination: It protects against the two common disease caused

abortions

• Ovine Pili Shield: It is a new vaccine given to ewes to immunize lambs

through the colostrum, against scours caused by E coli bacteria

• Selenium-Vitamin E: Selenium-E is not a vaccine but an injectable essential

nutrient needed for protection of sheep/goats and youngones against white muscle disease and immune deficiency It is mainly required in selenium deficient area Too much of it is highly toxic

Q Give schedule for vaccination of sheep/goats against various diseases

Tentative vaccination schedule

(Overleaf)

* Optional Source: Booklet issued by Vet Res Institute, Lahore

Q What general instructions need consideration for use and dosage of vaccines?

• The vaccines are intended for prophylactic and not for curative purpose

• The bottle should be thoroughly shaken before each injection to ensure a

uniform suspension

• The syringes, needles and other instruments to be used carefully sterilized

before use

• The bottles, ampoules, vials etc must not be exposed to direct sunlight or

heat Shelf-life depends on proper storage

• Protective immunity level can be achieved and maintained through adopting a

planned and systematic schedule of vaccination

• Live virus vaccines should not be demanded through ordinary post It is

preferable to collect them in ice from the institute through a special courier

• Distilled water for reconstitution of vaccines must be sterilized and chilled

• After reconstitution, the inoculum must be kept cool and used within 2 hours

• Instructions given on the label must be strictly adhered to

• Empty ampoules/vials and left-over inoculum should be properly disposed off

Q What do you know about ovine progressive pneumonia (OPP)? Explain in

detail

Any chronic ailment can result in thin sheep but OPP accounts for many of the persistently thin adult sheep (if nutrition and parasites have been eliminated as disease causes) OPP is a slow virus similar to AIDS in humans, taking about two years to show its symptoms The virus slowly causes progressive lung damage Ewes gradually lose stamina and body weight and have serious breathing problems ending in fatal pneumonia While at present there is no cure and no vaccine against OPP, there are new tests that make disease control possible It is necessary to have annual testing of all breeding animals (eliminating the infected ones) to ensure that no OPP problems occur and to be further sure you purchase only OPP-free breeding stock replacements Since it is transmitted from ewe to lamb through milk, therefore, infected valuable breeding ewe could be isolated from the flock and her lamb taken immediately at birth and raised on colostrum-replacer and lamb milk-replacer This is almost 100% effective All animals that test OPP positive should be isolated from the rest of the flock, since transmission can result from close contact with infected animals mainly via respiratory secretions when animals are confined to crowded quarters Once the signs of disease appear, the outcome

is always fatal Positive cases should be isolated and culled At Cornell University, there

is an Indirect Immunofluorescent Test (IIFT) for OPP When buying initial flock and any replacement animals, the owner should be requested to provide proof that his flock has been tested for OPP

Q What is meant by urolithiasis? Write down its main causes, symptoms and

treatment

Urolithiasis simply means urinary calculi The latter are stone like concretions in the urinary tract, which usually originate in the kidneys Sheep and goats are susceptible to urinary calculi formation and serious losses can occur when breeding males develop this problem Nutritional imbalances are generally considered the primary cause of stone formation For example i) a high-potassium intake, ii) a high-phosphorus-low-calcium ratio; the C:P ratio should be about 2:1, iii) a high silica content in the ratio and iv) a deficiency of vitamin A may be a contributing factor Symptoms commonly observed are: frequent attempts to urinate, dribbling or stoppage of the urine, pain and renal colic Mostly males affected since females are able to pass the concretions Bladder may rupture, with death following Otherwise, uraemic poisoning may set in When calculi develop, it is advisable to dispose off the affected animals, since treatments have limited success The following preventive and curative measures are recommended

Feed salt at level equivalent to 4 % of total diet in order to induce more water consumption Feed ammonium chloride at level of 7 g per head per day to reduce the alkalinity of the urine Incorporate 20 % alfalfa in the ration Administer muscle relaxants

to help the passage of calculi from the bladder As a last resort, surgically remove the calculi, however, males will become non-breeders after such an operation

Q Give causes, symptoms and treatment of bloat in small ruminants

Bloat is an excessive accumulation of gas and/or foamy material in the rumen Severe cases can be fatal in as little as two hours if not treated Too much of almost any feed can cause bloat but over consumption of unchoped wet clover, leafy alfalfa, grain or orchard

fruit etc is the most common cause When changed from sparse to lush pasture, animals may gorge themselves unless given a feeding of dry forage prior to turning out on the grazing area The coarse feed is thought to stimulate the belching mechanism as well as keeping the green feed from making a compact mass Some sheep/goats seem more prone

to bloat than others, possibly due to a faulty belching mechanism

Enlargement of the rumen on the left flank is the major sign of bloat Difficult breathing, grinding of teeth because of abdominal gas pain, sometimes profuse salivation and off feed are other symptoms When the animal falls to the ground death usually follows probably from suffocation If bloat is not so severe as to have caused a breathing problem, you can prevent further gas formation by giving two table spoons of baking soda in a cup of warm water, using a dose syringe Be careful so that the mixture does not

go into the lungs Repeat the dosage in thirty minutes if necessary You can place the sheep/goat in sitting position and massage the abdomen to encourage belching May be the bloat is foamy type, for that one-half cup of vegetable oil (maize oil or mustard oil) is given by mouth if the animal is still able to breathe and swallow normally One cm rubber tubing may be passed down the throat into the rumen to release gas, unless there is too much foam If you are sure that the tube is not in the lungs, you can pour one-half cup vegetable oil into the tube with a funnel to break up the foam somewhat In an emergency the rumen can be punctured by an experienced person, using a sterilized trocar and cannula to relieve both foam and gas and to treat to prevent infection

Q What is meant by an abscess and how to treat it?

An abscess is a lump or boil usually in the neck or shoulder region of goats It grows until

it bursts and a thick pus is exuded Any animal with an abscess should be isolated If the goat is wet, its milk should be boiled well before consuming it If, however, the abscess is

on the udder, the milk should be discarded The lump will become the size of a tennis ball

or even larger, and burst by itself or it can be lanced when it appears ripe A small shaped cut will heal better than a straight cut and the incision should be made low on the abscess to facilitate drainage Squeeze out the pus and burn the material Isolation and strict sanitation are especially important during the period of drainage If the abscess is caused by lymphadenitis, it will have cheese-like pus; if the pus is like mayonnaise it indicates pseudopeumonia The wound should be treated with acryflavine or tincture of iodine Some reports suggested that goat flocks vaccinated for corynebacteria became abscess free

HOOF CARE

Q What are the various causes of lameness in small ruminants? Suggest

preventive measures in this regard

The possible causes of lameness are: overgrown untrimmed hooves; wedges of mud or stone or other matter lodged in the cleft of the hoof; plugged toe gland (in sheep), squeeze to remove plug, then disinfect injury; sprain, nail puncture or thorn; abnormal foot development, may be a genetic defect, cull out; foot abscess; foot scald; true infectious hoof rot; vitamin deficiency, try ADE in food or injection

When you notice an animal limping, try to find out the reason Notice which foot seems affected, then catch the animal and trim all four hooves if needed, doing the sore one last

so as not to spread any possible infection You can help prevent sheep/goats from becoming lame by: trimming all feet at least twice a year, hooves may need trimming more than twice a year when the wet weather is unduly prolonged, untrimmed hooves curl under on the sides and provide pockets for accumulation of moist mud and manure ideal for growth of foot disease germs; maintaining dry bedding area in winter; keeping animals away from low lying marshy pastures; changing location of feeding sites occasionally to prevent accumulation of manure and formation of muddy areas; and having footbath arrangement for use when needed

Q What do you know about foot gland? Explain

Sheep have a deep gland between the two toes of each foot, with a small opening at the front and top of the hoof It can be readily seen Goats do not have these The gland’s secretion is waxy and has a faint, strange odour, said to scent the grass and reinforce the herding instinct If these glands are plugged with mud, the secretion is retained and the foot becomes lame Squeeze the gland and sometimes a fairly large amount of waxy substance pours out With this the animal gets better You must have to get a clear idea of what a normal hoof looks like, only then you can spot a diseased condition

Mighty Mike Sheep Squeeze: Sheep enters squeeze and sides are squeezed together It is then simple to turn sheep completely upside down Feet can be restrained in stirrups for foot trimming Adjustable from 45 kg animal to the largest adult ewe or ram

Q Write notes on foot scald, foot abscess and foot rot

Food Scald: It is sometimes mistaken for foot rot In scald the soft tissues above and

between the toes are involved There is inflamed tissue and moistness, sometimes open sores, often only one foot involved It is caused by dampness, wet pasture, prolonged walking in mud or the abrasion due to foreign objects lodged between the toes The soft tissue between and above the toes and heel become inflamed This occurs primarily during wet winter and the condition sometimes improves without treatment in dry weather It, however, lessens foot resistance to more serious conditions like foot abscess

or foot rot and causes lame animals to eat poorly and not get enough exercise

Trim hooves and spray with antibacterial hoof spray If no improvement, treat with footbath solution or ordinary hydrogen peroxide Penicillin injections may be helpful As prevention it is necessary to get rid of muddy places

Foot Abscess: Also called bumble foot It is a true abscess and occurs within the hoof

structure, usually affects only one foot It is considered infectious, but not extremely contagious like foot rot The infection causes formation of thick pus and as the internal

swelling above the hoof It is caused by bacteria in manure and dirt, which enter through cuts or a wound, causing an infection of soft tissue and reddening of the tissue between the toes This infection may become advanced if not treated and can move into the joints and then it is almost incurable Because of abscess pregnant sheep/goats will fail to graze, slow about getting grain feeding, not enough exercise, which can bring on pregnancy toxaemia Insufficient nutrition results into low birth weight of newborns and a little milk for them The abscess may eventually break/burst and discharge pus or pressure is released by an incision (X-cross type) When it is opened or breaks, squeeze out the pus and treat with an antiseptic and may bandage the foot An intramuscular injection of up to

a million units of penicillin for three to five days may be given

Foot Rot: It is caused by bacteria (Bacillus nodosus) Clean animals become infected by

walking over ground contaminated by infected animals within the last seven to ten days These bacteria cannot survive on the ground much longer than seven days, but can survive indefinitely in the feet of infected sheep/goat It spreads rapidly in warm moist weather The foot rot organism is an anaerobe This is why hoof trimming is an important part of foot rot treatment so that dead tissue is removed to allow oxygen to enter (to antagonize the survival of these bacteria) The availability of Footvax vaccine (in USA, Canada etc.), coupled with hoof paring and a hoof bath solutions makes both prevention and cure possible

Foot rot starts with a reddening of the skin between the claws of the hoof The infection starts in the soft horny tissue between the hoof or on the ball of the heel then spreads to the inner hoof wall By this time there is a strong unpleasant odour As the disease progresses, the horny tissue of the claws becomes partly detached and the separation of the hoof wall from the underlying tissue lets the claw become misshapen and deformed

In severe infections, it is often more practical to dispose of the most seriously affected animals and concentrate treatment on the milder cases

Treatment consists of the following: remove as much part of the affected hoof as possible

to expose the infected areas to the footbath Disinfect knife after each hoof trimmed Burn the hoof trimmings Footbath treatment be given Hold the animals on a dry yard for several hours after footbath treatment Vaccinate with Footvax if available May be imported for more valuable animals

Q What is meant by footbath treatment? Give some footbath formulae for use

with small ruminants

Footbath trough is a device containing preventive/curative solutions of various chemicals

in which feet of sheep/goats are given bath to treat problems such as foot rot

If you run sheep/goats through a trough of plain water first, it keeps the footbath solution clean longer Be sure that the animals have had water and are not thirsty so that they do not drink from the footbath Feet should be trimmed before the footbath to allow better penetration Disinfect knife between each hoof and each animal to avoid spread of germs The footbath contains 10% zinc sulphate solution in which the animals are made to stand for about an hour on two occasions a week apart Trim nonlimpers first, then put them in footbath first, now turn them into a clean grazing area Next foot-bathe the limpers and keep them in dry area, treating them regularly every week or have them walk through the bath on the way to daily feeding In conjunction with vaccination with Footvax, trimming and isolation of the infected animals from the clean group, total eradication of foot rot from treated flocks has been accomplished

There are various footbath formulae Some have been abandoned because of being toxic and less effective e.g copper sulphate has been widely used in the past Formalin is also discontinued in general usage, being very irritating when inhaled as well as irritating to the skin and feet Recent research has shown that 10% solution of zinc sulphate is highly effective as a footbath treatment It is the least toxic and the most effective It need not be changed frequently because it does not lose its strength from organic contamination The addition of some liquid laundry detergent will make it more penetrating and aid in dissolving the powder in water One kg zinc sulphate is dissolved in 2½ gallons of water Zinc sulphate dissolves slowly Add half of it to 1¼ gallons of water and add one-half cup of liquid detergent, stirring slowly but constantly The solution should be 5 cm deep

in the trough Do not rush the animals through the walk-through bath because they might splash the solution on their udders

If the number of animals is small, it may not be practical to build the footbath arrangement You can use a small bucket made of heavy plastic with footbath mixture to

a depth of 5 cm For each animal, use it on the lame foot and also as a precaution on trimmed healthy feet Apply the footbath solution to the hoof with a brush and then hold the infected foot in the plastic bucket containing the solution If you are treating a front foot, hold up the other front foot, forcing the animal to stand on the foot that is in the bath Afterwards keep the animal on a dry floor for about an hour before turning out for grazing Repeat the bath in a week and may be once more if still limping

Q Give below the list of preparations that are painted/sprayed onto hooves of

sheep/goats just after trimming

When footbath facilities are not available, any one of the following preparations may serve the purpose However, prior trimming is very important for the preparation to be effective

• 10% zinc sulphate in water

• 10% zinc sulphate in vinegar

• Two parts copper sulphate in one part pine tar

• 10% formalin in water

• Penicillin in alcohol-5 million units of potassium penicillin G with 10 cc

water, add to one pint of alcohol

• Kopertox-this has long been one of the most effective of all topical

applications for foot and minor wound problems It is formulated with a vehicle that makes it stick to the tissue as well as fingers and everything else

• Dry chemical treatment: Zinc sulphate 10% in lime can be spread on the

ground around feeding troughs to reduce the spread of hoof rot This is more

of a preventive than a treatment of existing disease and is a convenient substitute for a footbath during very cold season

Q Write a short on Footvax vaccine

It is a 10-strain whole cell vaccine containing all known serogroups of the foot rot bacteria It is given subcut just below and behind the ear, along the side of neck The timing of vaccination ideally be prior to the season of the greatest danger

To start with you vaccinate all animals (sheep/goats) on the premises with Footvax Six weeks later all should receive a booster dose, followed by booster doses at four to twelve months intervals All new animals brought into the flock should be vaccinated upon arrival All sheep/goats should be inspected for their feet and animals affected with foot

rot should be segregated and those infected should be closely trimmed The entire group should have a footbath of zinc sulphate This can be regularly a few days apart and at weekly intervals for those who appear to be clean Severely infected animals may benefit from antibiotics This vaccine is 85 to 90% effective in preventing foot rot and equally effective in curing cases (when combined with foot trimming and footbaths) Do not be alarmed if a bump appears on the injection site; it often disappears in a few weeks Even

a bump may show a small amount of exudates Because of the possibility of a bump, it is not advisable to vaccinate sheep/goats just prior to a small ruminants show/fair

Q Write a detailed note on hoof trimming in goats

Goats evolved with fast growing hooves to compensate for the wearing action of sand and rocks Part of good grooming is to keep your goat’s hooves neatly trimmed The hoof has a thin outer wall of keratin (finger nails made of the same material) The keratin layer surrounds the firm, fleshy cushion of the sole or frog When the keratin grows beyond the frog, it folds over, collects manure and moisture and becomes subject to infections such

as hoof rot The hoof begins to twist The goat cannot walk properly, feels pain and sometimes becomes permanently deformed

How often the hooves need trimming varies with each animal, the amount of exercise it gets, the type of areas it grazes on and the types of ground it is kept on A properly trimmed hoof is flat on the bottom and has a boxy look The keratin layer and frog are of even thickness, front to back and the toes are equal in length The best way to learn what

a proper hoof looks like is to examine the feet of a newborn kid Hooves that have been softened by the moisture of rain or dewy grass are easier to trim Have a sharp knife or garden pruning shears along with a rasp or file ready (Figure 23)

Grasp one ankle and bend the hoof back, placing it over your knee for control Scrape the accumulated dirt with the point of your trimming tool Cut off long toes Cut bent-over parts of the keratin layer parallel to the visible growth rings When the outer hoof is even with the frog, make smooth the frog’s white cushion by taking a tiny slice at a time Cut from the heel toward the toe Stop trimming when the white part shows the slightest signs

of pink, since you are getting close to the foot’s blood supply Work slowly and have good light so that you can see what you are doing Flatten and finish

the hoof with the rasp or file Trim the hooves of a doe early in pregnancy and preferably

do not do it again till after parturition Be sure your buck’s hooves are well trimmed prior

to the breeding season

Q Write a note on mortality in sheep

The estimated mortality for NWFP was 8% for over one year old and 18% for young stock under one year Fifty to 80% of the deaths occurred in the first 3 months of life, 7 to 20% in second to fourth quarter of the first year and 2 to 30% after one year old The major causes of death were gastro-enteritis (7 to 10%) and pneumonia (33 to 58%) In Punjab the estimated death rate was 10% for stock older than one year and 16% for stock under one year An outbreak of enterotoxaemia caused 57% of the total deaths Other causes of death were gastro-enteritis (13 to 29%) and pneumonia (29 to 50%) In

Northern Areas estimated losses ranged from 5 to 10% over all age groups The major causes of death were enterotoxaemia, sheep pox and liver fluke infestation

Enterotoxaemya was more prevalent in uphill pastures, while liver fluke on home

pastures

Q Why is the provision of first aid on small ruminant farm important?

It is important to render such skilled assistance to the animals inflicted with injuries, fractures, poisoning, burns, scalds and minor obstetrical problems The provision of first aid to affected animals will alleviate suffering, preserve life, promote recovery or prevent aggravation of the abnormal condition as well as to ensure peace and comfort of the animal during transportation to hospital, if need be

Q What are the general principles of first aid?

The person providing first aid must be trained and able to render the required skilled assistance to the inflicted animals He should get a history of the case for his own guidance and record Other important steps include: a) removal of the cause, b) arresting

of severe haemorrhage, if any, c) provision of plenty of fresh air to the patient, d) provision of warmth to check fall in temperature and shock, e) provision of rest by changing the position of the animal into an easy posture, f) dressing of all skin injuries, g) keeping the animal still (especially when fractures occurred) by using a tranquilizer or by diverting its attention toward some feed and h) discrimination must be exercised whether

to take the animal to the hospital or send for a veterinarian

Attending to Traumatic Conditions: Such conditions usually result from a physical

injury due to fall, fight between animals or impact with stationary or moving object The first thing to be done in all such cases is to arrest bleeding Bleeding (haemorrhage) may occur from a cut artery, vein or capillaries Bleeding from capillaries ceases soon after a clot has formed, but arterial and venous bleeding must be arrested in simple cases by keeping a pad in position (over the injury) by means of a bandage In favourable cases, blood clotting will occur and the blood flow ceases On limbs torniquet should be used For this purpose a piece of rubber tubing (1 cm or so in diameter) is looped around the

limb (6 to 8 cm above the wound) and the two ends tied with a knot A stick is inserted into a loop and by twisting the loop is tightened When sufficient pressure has build up, the stick should be secured in position with another bandage

Open Wounds: These are painful because the nerve endings are exposed and contact

with soil or other contaminated material often results in an infected sore which amy be slow to heal If there is not much of bleeding, the wound should be washed with potassium permanganate lotion, then swabbed dry and covered with a clean surgical gauze soaked in pyodine and bandage

Fractures: If the stock assistant is sufficiently experienced and if the fracture is simple,

an attempt may be made to bring about the fragments of bone together and retain them in that position using a splint and bandage In case it is a compound fracture and the animal

is valuable, better wait for a competent vet In the mean while the wound should be kept free from dirt etc and the animal kept as quiet as possible and its attention distracted from the wound by offering feed of alluring nature Similar line of action holds good for joint dislocations

Teat Injuries: Even the smallest abrasions or sores on teats should be treated promptly

and carefully since these sites frequently become infected and the infection spreads up the teat canal resulting in mastitis After cleaning the wound with pyodine, a dry dressing

of a suitable antiseptic powder leads to early healing

Feet Injuries: The injured foot should be cleaned with cold water and bleeding arrested,

if any The sole should be examined after paring away all dung and dirt, for the cause of injury is often a picked up nail, a piece of glass or a stone or a piece of wood wedged in the cleft of the foot The foot should be washed in warm antiseptic solution, dried and an antiseptic powder containing a bit of copper sulphate or zinc sulphate is dusted over the wound and a bandage applied The foot should then be covered with a nylon sack

Eye Injuries: These are due to the presence of a piece of grit, chaff, awn or a seed in the

eye A drop or two of clean castor oil should be put in the affected eye This reduces friction and eases the animal If the eye or eyes are badly inflamed, they should be treated with suitable eye drops thrice a day and protected by blind folding loosely with a strip of

cloth or housed under shade

Likely causes of kid death

Disease Causative

agent Symptoms

Coccidiosis P Diarrhoea, sometimes bloody Sudden

death may occur without diarrhoea

Normally in housed goats

Colibacillosis B Dry mouth Stomach full of gas Fever

Quick death unless treated Responds well

Lies on side when close to death, paddling legs May have watery diarrhoea

Internal parasites P Sudden death May have swelling under

chin, anaemia and weakness PM reveals

parasites in intestines, esp Haemonchus contortus in abomasums

Suffocation No physical signs of disease Can occur if

many kids and adults are kept together, esp

in cold climates

Malnutrition M Weakness, no stomach fill Check dam for

milk and kid for access to dam

Key: P = parasitic; B = bacterial; V = viral; M = metabolic

Likely causes of diarrhoea and loss of condition (adults)

Disease Causative

agent Symptoms

Acidosis M Full stomach, watery contents Diarrhoea

(watery, bad smell) Very weak No rumen movement Recent dietary change

Bloat M Full stomach with gas or froth Distension

on left side behind ribs Laboured breathing

Coccidiosis P Acute diarrhoea, often with blood Severe

straining

Enterotoxaemia B Full stomach Fever Sudden death is

common

Internal parasites P May have swelling under jaw, anaemia

Weakness, weight loss May die before signs of diarrhoea

Likely causes of respiratory problems and fever

Disease Causative

Anthrax B Bloody nasal discharge and bleeding from

body openings Death within 24-48 hours

Contagious

caprine

pleuropneumonia

(CCPP)

V Nasal discharge Rasping sound from

lungs Fever Death in most cases, sometimes 24 hours after first signs

Lungworm P Breathing difficulties, coughing leading to

pneumonia

Melioidosis B Symptoms vague Coughing, weakness,

respiratory distress Sometimes thick yellow nasal discharge Sometimes lameness Death after 1-8 weeks

Pneumonia B,V,P Rapid, laboured movement of ribs with

rasping sound Grunting, groaning and grinding of teeth from pain

Goat pox V High fever, nasal and eye discharge

Pimples appear after 24 hours, forming itchy scabs after one week Death may occur

Likely causes of skin diseases and swellings

Disease Causative

agent Symptoms

Caseous

lymphadenitis

B Small lumps under the skin, located at

lymph nodes, developing into large abscesses Usually in adults Chronic form shows wasting

Streptothricosis B Large spots commonly on face, ears and

legs, exuding clear serum Spots may merge into large scabs, causing hair to stand erect

Goat pox V Fever Nasal discharge Spots appear after

24 hours on mucous membranes inside and outside body Spot becomes itchy scab

Mange P Sarcoptic mange shows rough, hard, itchy,

wrinkled skin on back of legs and between front and rear legs, gradually spreading to mouth Demodectic or follicle mange causes small hard itchy lumps all over body

and teats Often affects kids

Ringworn F Roughly circular areas of missing hair,

leaving rough, scaly skin

Warts V Growths appear on the skin, starting small

but sometimes growing and spreading to affect a large area May affect any area, including udder and teats

Key: F = fungus

Likely causes of poor condition, anaemia and pale mucous membranes

Disease Causative

agent Symptoms

Anaplasmosis P Poor condition and severe anaemia

Babesiosis P Bloody diarrhoea and dark red urine Poor

appetite, listless with fever Most recover, but some die, showing nervous symptoms including paddling

Coccidiosis P Acute bloody diarrhoea Weak Severe

straining

Internal parasites P Good appetite, but poor body condition

Sometimes diarrhoea In severe cases, swelling under jaw (‘bottle jaw’)

Teeth problems P Weak or damaged teeth

Trypanosomiasis P Poor body condition, poor appetite

Chronic weight loss Swollen lymph nodes

Likely causes of lameness

V Young kids show weakness in hindlegs and

finally cannot rise Death usually follows In adults, swollen joints develop slowly (2 years) Difficulties in walking

Foot rot B Lameness in one or more foot Affected foot

appears ragged and rotten, with bad smell

Often occurs in wet season, or in dirty conditions

M Kids born with deformed joints because of

calcium: phosphorus imbalance or deficiency

Navel ill B Inflamed navel and hot painful joints in kid

Inflammation of skin at site of attachment

V In addition to lameness, often head tremors,

blindness, jerky movement of eyeballs and circling

Copper deficiency M Muscle tremors and nodding or shaking of

head

Enterotoxaemia B Star gazing, convulsions, teeth grinding,

pitiful cry of pain Paddling movements and throwing back head just before death

Heartwater R Circling movement Convulsion, twitching

eyelids Depression

Listeriosis B Facial paralysis, resulting in drooping

eyelids and ears Circling and head pressing

Melioidosis B Sometimes staggering, jerky movement, or

paralysis, with swollen joints

Navel ill B Convulsions may occur in kids when close

to death Enlarged navel stump is a critical symptom

Pregnancy toxaemia Inability to stand, poor balance during late

gestation

confusion, drooling saliva, strange bleat

especially hind legs, high-stepping legs Salivation

fore-Tetanus B ‘Rocking-horse’ straight-legged stance

Usually 2 weeks after wound

Metritis B Dark, sticky, smelly discharge after giving

birth indicates metritis If left untreated, may develop into chronic problem and infertility

Physical damage Physical damage to penis or testicles may

result in male infertility

Sperm granulomas H Sterility Small, hard tumour at top of

unusually small testes can eventually be felt

Trypanosomiasis P Inflammation/degeneration of testes

Key: H = hereditary

Likely causes of abortion

Disease Causative

agent Symptoms

Brucellosis B Abortion in last 50 days of the 150-day

gestation Possibly swollen joints

Chlamydial abortion B Abortion in last 50 days of gestation High

proportion of flock will abort

Foot and mouth

disease

V Abortion at any time of gestation, early in

course of disease Sores on tongue, in mouth and between claws of feet

Listeriosis B Abortion in last 70 days of gestation May

have drooping ears and eyelids Tongue may hang out Fever, depression and nervous symptoms

Malnutrition M Abortion at any time during gestation, but

especially in last 50 days if short of energy

Poisoning M Abortion at any time of gestation, as

side-effect of poisoning

Salmonellosis B Abortion in last 50 days of gestation Fever,

no appetite, diarrhoea

Shock and stress Abortion at any time during gestation,

usually 2 to 4 days after shock or stress

Toxoplasmosis P Abortion in last 50 days of gestation Rare

Trypanosomiasis P Abortion during acute disease

Likely causes of udder diseases

Disease Causative

agent Symptoms

Mastitis B Heat, pain and swelling of udder May

become bright red Udder black and cold if gangrenous

Orf V Small, scabby, painful sores on udder Doe

will not allow kid to suckle

Physical damage Physical damage such as tears, tick damage,

thorn damage can make udder sore and affect milk production Can lead to infection

Warts V Small warts may grow on teat and persist for

what is seen In order to carryout an effective post-mortem, it is important that the size, colour, and texture of normal organs are known, so that any abnormalities can be observed and recorded Visits to a slaughterhouse will enable you to become quickly familiar with the appearance of the organs of normal sheep/goats

Q How to proceed while conducting a post-mortem examination?

First find a convenient site away from the owner’s house/farm and other livestock and in

a place where the dead sheep/goat can subsequently be burned or buried at a depth of at least one meter (Note: If the body is stiff, swollen or bloated, do not open it, because too long a period has elapsed after death to be able to determine the cause of death Do not bother to carry out a post-mortem on a dead body that died more than 12 hours before, because the internal organs will have already started to decompose Observe the dead sheep/goat, if there are any dark bloody discharges from the mouth, nose or anus, then do not open it, as it may have died of anthrax It is a very dangerous disease If the body is opened, the whole surrounding area may become contaminated Touch the body to check for any gas under the skin Does it crackle under the skin? If yes, it might be clostridial infection such as malignant oedema Check the body for any external abnormalities Check for ticks How severe is the infestation? Take samples of ticks Check all legs for foot rot and wounds) Never perform a post-mortem near any water supply or close to grazing areas because of risks of contamination Dig a small ditch beside the carcass, into which organs and fluids can be placed

Ideally, post-mortem examination should be carried out wearing rubber gloves or thin plastic bags can be used to cover your hands If not available, check your hands for any cuts or bruises If you have any cuts, do not perform a post-mortem Get someone else to open the carcass and examine the organs while you watch

Obtain a detailed case history from the owner/attendant of the animal This combined with an examination of the outside of the carcass, will direct your attention to the organs most likely to be involved in this case There should be someone to record the findings of the post-mortem as you describe them

Lay the body on its back or side and cut the skin in a line along the center of the abdomen and chest Remove the reproductive organs (testicles or udder) Pull the skin back Bend back top foreleg and hindleg Open the body by cutting the ribs along the line of the back bone and cutting the ribs along the chest and removing the rib cage Tip the body up and look at the fluids Are they bloody or yellowish? Do there seem to be a lot of fluids? If yes, suspect enterotoxaemia Remove the whole digestive tract without opening it, by tying both the top and bottom ends of the tract with string or tie the intestine in a knot Keep the tract for examination later on including liver and spleen Check the heart for fluids inside the outer membrane of the heart If there are lots of fluids then heart water might be the cause of death Cut the top of the trachea and remove it with the lungs and keep them for later Look for the kidneys, which will be in some fat at the back of the abdominal cavity Extract them from the fat, remove and keep them Check the bladder Open and observe the colour and quantity of urine Check inside the bladder for any haemorrhage, dots of blood or lines of blood If yes, suspect poisoning Look for spleen attached to the rumen close to the liver Check the length and edge of the spleen Is sharp

or blunt? A normal spleen is firm, with sharp edges Feel the consistency If the spleen is enlarged and soft with a blunt edge, then the cause of death possibly is anaplasmosis If the spleen is very swollen, suspect trypanosomiasis

Check the liver for size and consistency: hard, springy like dough or fragile Cut across the length in 2 to 3 places and press If liver flukes are present, dark-coloured flukes will pop out Run a knife blade on the surface of the liver to feel for any spots of dead (necrosed) tissue If there are greyish/yellow areas, these may be the migratory tracts of liver fluke If the liver and spleen are very enlarged and if the gall bladder is distended with thick dark green bile, then suspect babesiosis If it is a kid and the liver is pale and yellow with grey patches, or if it is an adult and the liver is red/brown with dead patches, then suspect Rift valley fever (prevalent in certain African countries) To confirm, check intestines for haemorrhages It is a dangerous disease and can infect people Examine the lungs for consistency Palpate each lung for hardness, nodules and cysts Open the trachea and continue cutting into the lung Check for foam, worms and blood Adult worms in the bronchi indicate lungworms Cut a small piece of lung and put it in a cup of water If the lung is normal, it will float; if diseased, it will usually sink Cut across the length of the lung, press and see if there is any foam If there is much straw-coloured fluid, then suspect contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP) If there is clear fluid and the lower part of the lung is red/purple, then suspect pasteurellosis

Examine the kidneys: The kidney will normally start to putrefy 12 to 24 hours after death However, if the kidney putrefies within six hours after death, suspect enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney) Next check the digestive tract First observe the whole tract for any dark patches

Small Intestine: If there is a dark patch, open in that area If it appears normal, open

randomly Cut open and remove the contents into a container Cut along the length and check for any attached worms Check the inside wall for any blood lines If they are present, suspect enterotoxaemia Check the contents for any worms In some cases worms may not be seen with naked eye Watch for a wave-like motion in the contents of the small intestines, indicating the presence of parasites If the contents of the small intestines, indicate the presence of parasites and the contents are bloody and nodules are present on the intestinal surface, suspect coccidiosis

Large Intestine: If the large intestine is filled with liquid faeces and there was evidence

of severe dehydration, suspect colibacillosis If there are obvious haemorrhages, particularly in the caecum and colon and enlarged internal lymph nodes, then suspect Nairobi sheep disease

Rumen: Cut the rumen along its greatest curve Remove the contents Look for worms

attached to the wall (small red oval-shaped worms when full of blood) They indicate Paramphistomum and are not important Check the inside wall; if it rubs off easily, then acidosis might be the cause of death Check contents for foreign materials (plastic bags, metal objects etc.); for smell (a bear-like fermenting smell indicates acidosis); for appearance (if frothy, suspect bloat) Check the contents of the reticulum for foreign material such as nails, wires etc Also check the contents of the omasum for foreign material

Abomasum: Put contents into a container and wash the flaps of the wall into the

container Look at the wall for blood spots, blood lines or blood Look for small white

worms with a red spiral pattern attached to the wall These are probably Haemonchus contortus If you can see many worms, then there is a major worm problem

After the post-mortem, the body should not be eaten, but ideally should be deeply buried

or burned

Q Write a very brief note on taking samples during a post-mortem

If you have access to a good animal diagnostic laboratory; any organ found not to be normal, should be preserved as a sample It should be properly sealed and labeled When taking samples, always take samples of both the affected part and a normal part of the organ Samples should be preserved in 5% formalin or frozen If this is not possible, they can be preserved in a strong saline solution They should reach a laboratory within 12 hours Along with a copy of the post-mortem examination record be sent to the laboratory These should either be dispatched in a container with a fixative such as 10% formalin, or should first be preserved for two days Pieces of tissue should be cut to 10 to

15 mm size to allow proper penetration of fixative For toxicological examination the contents of the stomach and intestines and portions of liver and kidneys may be sent without delay, each in separate containers

Q What types of samples need to be dispatched for laboratory tests to have the

disease diagnosed?

In such cases it is advisable to: contact the laboratory before samples are dispatched or have a constant liaison with the lab.; know what kind of tests are routinely performed at the lab.; send the samples without delay; and send brief details of the case as well as of the samples The following types of samples may be dispatched

• Whole blood mixed with an anticoagulant such as EDTA (1 to 10 mg/ml),

heparin (0.1 to 0.2 mg/ml), sodium citrate (2 to 4 mg per ml) or potassium oxalate (2 mg/ml)

• Whole blood in glucose broth for bacteriological examination

• Blood smears on microscopic slides fixed in alcohol

• Serum or plasma for biochemical estimations and serological tests

• Urine should be dispatched without adding preservatives

• Other body fluids including cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid and fluid from

thoracic and abdominal cavities should be collected aseptically and dispatched

in sterile bottles with preservative

• Faeces may be dispatched in plastic or metallic containers

• Skin scrapings may be sent in sealed tubes or small bottles without

preservative

• Samples for bacteriological examination including body fluids, pus, faeces,

tissues and swabs may be dispatched, preferably with enrichment medium

• Tissue samples from live or dead animals may be sent for histological

examination The sample should include normal as well as diseased tissue

RANGE SHEEP AND GOAT

PRODUCTION

Q What proportion of total area of Pakistan is rangeland?

Of 79.61 million hectares area of Pakistan, 57.09 million hectares constitute rangeland area The Balochistan province has the largest proportion, being 32.43 m hectares, while the NWFP has the smallest The provinces of Punjab (9.70 m hectares) and Sindh (9.28 m hectares) have almost the same magnitude of rangeland

Q What type of lands have been termed as rangelands?

Under the conditions of this country, rangelands include all categories of land that are not under forest or cultivation, especially those that sustain grazing or browsing of animals However, wastelands characterized by precipitation too low or too erratic to support forestry or permanent cultivation are also included Of course, a considerable area classified as rangeland is not fit for grazing because it includes mountain peaks, steep rocks, shifting sand dunes, marshes and swamps e.g of the 31.6 m hectares of rangelands

in Quetta, Kalat and Makran division of Balochistan, only 12.1 m hectares are fit for grazing

Q Discuss the general importance of rangelands

Range areas are used mostly by pastoralists since livestock grazing is the biggest land use

in the country These areas not only yield forage for grazing but often fuel, some building material, medicinal and food plants as well They serve as a production base for livestock, which yield meat and milk for human consumption and products such as hides, skins, wool, hair, bones and manure In addition, rangelands in the mountains and plateaus of the western and north-western parts of the country are also watersheds for a number of big dams and reservoirs in the Indus basin Properly managed and vegetated rangelands help in checking soil erosion and production of good quality water from these watersheds Rangelands also support a large population of the remaining stock of wildlife, which are a genetic resource, a potential source of additional animal protein and,

in some areas, a tourist attraction worth millions of rupees per annum

Q Write a note on the contribution of rangelands to sheep and goat production

Estimated sheep and goat population of Pakistan is over 75m in 2002 Rangelands in the country hardly provide 50 % of the total feed requirement for sheep and goats Overall these areas provide 13 % of the total feed consumed by animals as indicated by the FAO/IBRD (1974) livestock survey Based on the estimated population of sheep as given above, the requirements of total digestible nutrients (TDN) were 4.98 million tons, of which 1.68 million tons were being provided by rangelands The TDN requirements for goats were assessed as 7.8 million tons, whereas only 1.91 million tons were being met from rangelands

At 60 % utilization rate, the current annual forage production from rangelands is about 15.30 million tons of dry matter, TDN 7.65 million tons and DP (digestible protein) 0.69 million tons