Application Of Andragogy In Self – Directed Learning In Higher Education

APPLICATION OF ANDRAGOGY IN SELF DIRECTED LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION Dang Thi Thanh Thuy, Tang Thi Thuy, Trinh Van Minh (VNU University of Education) Abstract This study aims to find out the nature of andragogy and self directed learning (SDL) in higher education by utilizing qualitative research method with desk study of literature review relating to Knowles’s theories in andragogy and SDL The research results showed that “andragogy” was first known in 1833, then developed into a theory of ad[.]

IN SELF - DIRECTED LEARNING IN HIGHER EDUCATION

Dang Thi Thanh Thuy, Tang Thi Thuy, Trinh Van Minh

(VNU University of Education)

Abstract: This study aims to find out the nature of andragogy and self-directed learning (SDL) in higher

education by utilizing qualitative research method with desk study of literature review relating to Knowles’s theories

in andragogy and SDL The research results showed that “andragogy” was first known in 1833, then developed into a theory of adult education by Knowles Andragogy may refer to students of all ages but its focus on adult students when they expressed their self-direction and autonomy of their learning while teachers act as facilitators

or tutors SDL was developed on the basis of andragogy theory The results revealed that five adult students’ learning characteristics includes (1) self-awareness; (2) their own learning experience; (3) readiness to learn; (4) learning orientation; (5) and learning motivation Moreover, the adult learning principles in combination with those characteristics are manifestations and basis of SDL In essence, SDL requires individuals to take the initiative and responsible for learning The self-directed characteristics are relatively similar to the learning characteristics that andragogy proposed In particular, SDL can take place both inside and outside of formal educational institutions It turns, students from the role of educational objects into educational or self-educational subjects These characteristics of andragogy and SDL are highly applicable in teaching and learning at higher education Some suggestions to promote the role of andragogy and SDL at universities are also mentioned in this article The research results are expected to contribute to the

Key words: andragogy, self-directed learning, higher education.

1 INTRODUCTION

The term “andragogy” was first mentioned by Alexander Kapp in the 1833, and was popularized in the United States in the 1960s by Malcom Knowles (Smith, 2010) Andragogy was developed to the adult learning theory by Knowles, who was known in the United States as “the father of andragogy” when

he was best known for his presentations, researches on andragogy and the adult learning movement from the 1960s to the 1980s (Knowles et al., 2014; Smith, 2010) Accordingly, adults have their self-concept and orientation to learn (Knowles, 1970) As stated by this theory, students have their personal learning motivations well as the self-esteem, confidence and expectation to prove themselves (Carney, 1986) Self-directed learning (SDL) is developed based on andragogy theory to promote the development

of students’ independent learning skills and to encourage them to deepen their understanding by self-study which actually expresses their curiosity and knowledge discovery (Phillips et al., 2015) Besides, with SDL, individuals are active in their learning that will help the learning process be qualifier than those who passively rely only on the teacher (Knowles, 1975) Self-directed learning (SDL) is known as

a teaching and learning method for adults With SDL, students define their own learning goals, plans and actively participate in the learning process, with or without the others’ supports (Knowles, 1975) This

is an inevitable trend to meet the rapid change in technology and the students’ learning needs Because,

by SDL, it turns students from an educational object into a self-educational subject In addition, it is also a specific solution of the teaching innovation among higher education institutions (Tri et al., 2016) Especially, for the development of technology and various types of learning, the notion of individual and individualism has become a central issue which in its turn is central to self-directed learning (Grubbs & Riley, 2018)

In Vietnam, SDL is still a new concept with a shortage of researches Therefore, it is in need of analyzing the SDL nature, its significance and challenges This will help educators, students, researchers, and education managers to understand and to apply SDL in universities Thereby It could contribute to promoting the training quality in Vietnamese higher education institutions To find out the key points and role of andragogy in SDL, this study analyzed the characteristics, principles Knowles’ andragogy and its practical applications in SDL in higher education Specifically, in the context of Vietnam higher education institution seriously affected by Covid-19 in 2021, all institutions must apply online learning for their training subjects Furthermore, some relevant recommendations to promote the application

of andragogy in SDL among students would be provided to partly contribute to improve the quality of teaching and learning at higher education institutions

2 RESEARCH METHODS

The qualitative research method was utilized with external desk study, including online desk research and Government published data It was used to review the literature related to Knowles’ adult learning theory (andragogy) and SDL to understand its role in learning Basing on the analysis results, explanations and conclusions about SDL’s theoretical basis and the applicability of andragogy

in teaching and learning in practice were proposed in this study

The review was undergone the main following stages as following:

Data screening We applied two approaches for finding the relevant information of Knowles’

andragogy and SDL from internet One is directly browsing the research gate sites and extracting the information out of these sites Secondly, we searched on google.com and scholar.google.com, researchgate.net In addition, we also used the Government published data (laws, resolutions, circulars)

in the study In this step, legal documents for higher education in Vietnam, scientific articles and research results on andragogy, SDL and their applications in higher education, were screened and selected for analysis The output of this stage included the list of reference

Data analyzing, interpretation and reflection After scanning stage, the secondary data was

reviewed and analyzed Basing on the analysis results, the concept of andragogy; characteristics of adult learners; features and principles of andragogy; roles and application of andragogy in SDL and online learning were summarized, interpreted and reflected At the same time, suggestions to promote andragogy and SDL in higher education are also proposed in this step The output covers both research findings, discussion and recommendations

3 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Concept of andragogy

The term “andragogy” is known as to be equivalent to the term “pedagogy” “Andragogy” in Greek consists of “andr” which means “adult” and “agogos” bares the meaning of “guiding” According to Pappas (2013) “andragogy” means “to lead people” compared to “pedagogy”, which in Greek means

to lead children However, the term “pedagogy” has been used since ancient Greece, while the term

“andragogy” was first used by Alexander Kapp, a German educator in 1833 (Pappas, 2013)

Malcolm Shepherd Knowles (1913 - 1997), an American educator who was best known for using the term “andragogy” synonymously with adult education (Kearsley, 2010) Adults know their abilities and experiences and they demand more participation in the learning process (Knowles, 1970) In the book “Modern practice of adult education”, Knowles (1970) stated that andragogy is the “art and technology” of adult learning He also argued that andragogy replaces pedagogy and is an approach that focuses on learners of all ages The most important of Knowles’ findings is that adults know their abilities and experiences well and they demand to be more involved in the learning process According

to Knowles, andragogy refers to methods or techniques used to teach adults It focuses on the adult learning experience and is one of the most effective methods in adult education It is much more self-directed, in the sense that adults must frequently set their own learning schedules and be motivated

to commit to study or practice Adult education is also frequently cooperative in the sense that adults frequently collaborate and review each other’s work and understanding of a subject Grades may not be important or may be absent entirely in many adult education courses

3.2 Characteristics of adult learners

Knowles (1980) proposed four hypotheses about adult learning characteristics including: (1) self-concept; (2) adult learning experience; (3) readiness to learn; and (4) orientation to learn In 1984, Knowles added the fifth hypothesis of “motivation to learn” The followings are the five theories and their application in adult teaching (Knowles, 1984)

Figure 1 Characteristics of adult learners by Knowles (1984)

Self-concept

Self-concept is a set of beliefs about oneself that represents the answer to the question “Who am I?” As

a person matures, his perception shifts from dependent to directed When adult learners are self-directed, according to Knowles, adults can self-direct and control their learning experience In addition, they are also responsible for their own learning They will participate in their learning plan, assessment and evaluation as they know what they want to acquire Therefore, the curriculum and teaching methods should be designed to fit with their learning features

Adult learning experience

Adults have more or less accumulated their own experience and that experience becomes the primary source of both their learning and their personal identity, as the richer and more diverse their experience, the more diversity they can bring to their own learning Therefore, to teach adults to learn most effectively, teachers need to know how to integrate new concepts and knowledge with existing knowledge This is very important, because if the knowledge provided coincides with what the learners already know, they will not accept it Teachers need to integrate their teaching knowledge into their life experiences, to be an active part of the learners’ learning process

Readiness to learn

Adult learners’ readiness to learn can be triggered a significant change in their lives, a willingness

to deal with life tasks and challenges more successfully, a desire for improvement and self-development Adults must understand why they want to learn something; once they have answered this question, they are ready to begin Learning readiness is increasingly oriented toward the developmental goals of their social role Therefore, when learning, they will learn with a willing, voluntary and responsible attitude In addition, adults are aware of the importance of education and the value it brings from learning They use learning as a solution to deal with their problems and to meet their expectation

to be able to overcome difficulties in their work

Orientation to learn

Adults learn because they have their learning needs for their life and/or their future work Therefore, their learning should be oriented towards certain goals Moreover, learners would like to measure their own goals and have a clear system for assessing their own progress Hence, curriculums or syllabus need

to be associated with practical applications in work and life For example, there should be a combination

of simulations or real-life situations that allows learners to undergo the real-world problems or to help them overcome difficulties or obstacles in their context work

Motivation to learn

For adults, the motivation to learn is within themselves (Knowles, 1984) Adults have their own learning motivations, esteem, confidence, desire for better quality of life, curiosity, self-development, and recognition are only a few factors that motivate adult learners to learn They learn

to solve their own problems or needs Therefore, memorization will not be the solution, but instead, instructors provide simulation exercises, real situations or contextual role-playing that will bring benefits and higher learning efficiency to students

It is undeniable that andragogy can be extremely motivating, so providing them with meaningful learning experiences can make a significant difference in achieving learning outcomes

3.3 Characteristics of andragogy

According to (Knowles, 1975), andragogy is presented in the following features:

Figure 2 Characteristics of andragogy by Knowles (1975)

Firstly, learning is a process, to achieve optimal results in learning, learners must actively participate

in the learning process, not passively absorb information They take responsibility for their own learning

Secondly, adults often learn by doing, they want to be involved in the learning process When

they learn, they often relate what they are learning with their prior experience Therefore, to help adults to learn more effectively, it is advisable to start from their own knowledge and understanding Teachers should include examples and practical problems in lessons or discussion which are relevant

to adult students’ learning needs

Thirdly, the learning environment plays an important role to adult students A comfortable

learning environment will be more helpful to students’ learning Therefore, it is advisable to minimize the causes that make them feel stressed or not open in the learning process Learning will be more effective if the learning atmosphere is favorable The learning atmosphere is often affected if there are tests or grading activities

Fourthly, the role of the teacher is to provide advice, guidance or to create an environment for

students to promote active research, to explore and discover knowledge and skills effectively The students’ role is learning, selecting and applying the knowledge and skills which they learned in the most relevant to them Students actively learn while the teachers support and motivate students during the learning process

3.4 Principles of andragogy

Based on the above hypothesis of adult learning, Knowles (1970) proposed four basic principles

as follows:

Figure 3.3 Principles of andragogy in learning by Knowles (1970)

Those principles are:

1) Adults learn by transitioning from dependent to self-directed They need to be involved in the planning and assessment of their learning

2) Adults learn from their prior experience Their experience (including mistakes) are the sources

of their learning

3) Adults are most interested in learning what relate and effect on their work or personal lives They are willing to learn when taking on new roles/jobs

4) They want to solve problems and apply new knowledge immediately Adult learning is problem-oriented rather than content-focused (Kearsley, 2010)

3.5 Applications of Knowles’ andragogy in SDL in higher education

Andragogy has been widely used in many countries and applied to many disciplines from the sciences to the arts, which can be applied in whole or in part (Carney, 1986) The approach of andragogy has been adopted in various sectors including medicine, criminal justice, education and management (Forrest III & Peterson, 2006) According to Zmeyov (1998), the andragogical principles of learning are widely needed, and not only in adult education, they have been used in training as well Bedi (2004) claims that andragogy helps educators understand students’ behavior and identify causes of the students’ anxiety and encourages students to search for options to a problem and to become self-directed learners Knowles (1975), who is behind the theory of andragogy or adult learning theory defined SDL as follows:

“In its broadest meaning, SDL describes a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (p.18)

According to Boyer et al (2014), Knowles’ (1975) concept of a system is widely accepted with eight elements: (1) it is a process; (2) by an individual; (3) may or may not require the assistance of others; (4) learners identify their learning needs; (5) develop learning goals from those needs; (6) find the necessary resources to achieve the objectives; (7) select and implement appropriate learning strategies to meet learning goals and (8) decide how learning outcomes will be assessed SDL requires individuals to

be proactive and responsible for their own learning Carney (1986) argued that it is necessary to separate students from dependence on their teachers as traditional pedagogical methods Because most teachers might not really understand how students learn In addition, the policies in educational institutions might not be consistent with the philosophy of andragogy Meanwhile, Knowles (1975) describes self-directed learners as proactive, and self-initiated, with higher levels of motivation and personal responsibility for learning According to Knowles, students become increasingly self-directed when being mature Especially, SDL can be considered as learning by oneself (auto-formation), as opposed to learning through the others ‘actions (hetero-formation) As Knowles’s explanation, the development of learner’s independent inquiry skills encourages deeper learning through the improvement of comprehension and retention, with the habit of substantive research acquired through intellectual curiosity and exploration (Phillips et al., 2015) In the context of higher education, SDL do not take place in isolation, but

in collaboration with others such as instructors, tutors and peers Therefore, learning can be put on

a continuum, ranging from instructor or other focused at one end to self-directed at the other end (Knowles, 1975; Knowles, 1990) Learning, even SDL, rarely occurs in isolation from the learner’s world It is intimate and affected by it (Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020) Furthermore, concurrent with the technological advances has been an information explosion There are “90 percent of the data in the world was generated in the last two years” (Mart, 2018; cited by Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020) In this information-rich society, there is an increasing need for continuing education

SDL requires individuals to be proactive and responsible for their own learning students feel free to set goals and determine what is worth learning These are also characteristics of andragogy In particular, SDL can take place both inside and outside educational institutions The teacher when participating in the process of SDL plays the role of a facilitator, an advisor or a tutor, not a transmitter of knowledge like traditional pedagogical method (Loeng, 2020) This is one of the crucial teaching and learning methods for adults (Brockett et al., 1982) For more than five decades, Knowles (1975) asserted that SDL would become one of the important life skills Because this approach has been emphasized in higher education curricula In addition, Knowles (1975) also describes self-directed learners as proactive with high motivation and personal responsibility for learning He argued that learners become increasingly self-directed as they mature According to theories of SDL and andragogy, students would be ready for SDL when they could be able to self-manage their learning If they are not good at self-management that can lead them to difficulties during learning As stated by Garrison (1997), self-management is concerned with controlling learning tasks, focusing on the social and students’ behavior aspects in response to SDL programs Besides, students also have external supports to ensure them not be isolated from the other factors of learning In addition, SDL also needs resources to support students during the learning process Therefore, students must ensure essential factors such as self-management, self-discipline and perseverance to perform goal-oriented activities, providing the foundation for effective learning

Learning control is one of the most important factors in SDL As indicated by Garrison (1992), the students’ increase of controlling learning can lead in the enhance of their learning responsibility, building

a strong foundation for students to pursue SDL Readiness is also related to how the students monitor

their learning activities Without supervision, students easily give up the learning process (Leach, 2000) For adults, self-supervision is important for their better learning (Garrison, 1997) According to Loftin

et al (2005), through supervision, students’ thinking can be modified in a way that is appropriate for a learning goal or tasks According to Garrison (1992), motivational factors bring a great influence on the cognitive activities underlying learning, helping to balance learning control or context and perceptions

or responsibilities during learning Additionally, learning dynamics ensure a student’s commitment to self-directed learning Therefore, if students are motivated, they will actively study Galbraith (2004) stated that, the motivational strategy is an intentional act or process used by the instructor/ facilitator

to enhance students’ learning dynamics Motivation plays an important role in initiating and sustaining learning efforts (Howe, 1987) Students must be highly motivated to be ready to go through the learning process Lack of motivation will hinder the learning process and make students not ready for learning Self-management and self- control create an appropriate environment that motivates students to achieve the desired readiness for the SDL process

Knowles (1984) provided some suggestions to apply andragogy principles in adult education as well as higher education such as students need to be explained specifically what they learn Therefore, the instruction should focus on learning tasks rather than promoting memorization Moreover, when designing learning activities, educators should be placed in the context of tasks would be performed by others and teaching should take into account of students’ different learning backgrounds In addition,

he also stated that learning materials and activities should be prepared for students’ different levels and experience Furthermore, in his discussion, andragogy mentioned an important principle that adults are self-directed therefore, instructions must be in the orientation of allowing students to discover knowledge and skills on their own without depending on others However, students need guidance and help when they encounter problems

The adult learning theory (andragogy) shows that adult students can self-direct their learning (Knowles, 1970) According to Knowles, they may have their own prior experience for their learning, readiness to learn to meet some needs of life and work tasks Students learn with defined learning purpose, orientation and problem-centered solving (Knowles, 1984) According to Carney (1986), adult students have personal motivations that promote them to learn, such as self-esteem, confidence, and the desire to prove themselves These characteristics all essentially represent the essence of self-directed learning, which Knowles (1975) defined as a process that individuals diagnose their learning needs, formulate learning goals, identify resources for learning, choose and implement appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes

In education 4.0 of an individual human learner in the present society being ‘on the doorstep’

of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, an ongoing process of systemic societal change characterized

by a ubiquitous and mobile internet (Schwab, 2017), Knowles’ theory of andragogy and SDL can be much further applied in practice Especially, in the context of social changes, technology development and students’ learning needs, andragogy and SDL could be a very effectively solution for educators and students when the higher education institutions apply online training, blended learning or hybrid learning Other researchers used andragogy to evaluate the effectiveness of lectures which could support

to improve learning methods more effectively through the students’ active participation into the learning process For example, teachers can use a system of dialogue questions, group discussions, and student-led sessions to make learning more autonomous and engaging

4 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The theory of adult learning (andragogy) suggests that adult students can self-direct their learning They may have their own prior experience for their learning, readiness to learn to meet some important needs in life and work The adult students have their learning purpose and personal motivations of learning such as self-esteem, confidence, and the desire to prove themselves Andragogy may refer to students of all ages but its focus on adult students when they expressed their self-direction and autonomy

of their learning while teachers act as facilitators or tutors Andragogy has been widely used in many countries and applied to many educational sectors SDL was developed on the basis of andragogy theory

In essence, SDL requires individuals to take the initiative and responsible for learning The self-directed characteristics are relatively similar to the learning characteristics that andragogy proposed It turns students from the role of educational objects into educational or self-educational subjects These characteristics of andragogy and SDL are highly applicable in teaching and learning at higher education

To promote the application of andragogy in SDL in universities, some suggestions are proposed

as follows:

Firstly, andragogy and the concept of SDL needs to be seriously researched and considered by

higher education institutions Because both andragogy and SDL refers to the active role and responsibility

of learners SDL emphasizes the students’ role in determining learning needs, goals, learning plans, assessment and evaluation in the learning process at their universities This is completely consistent with the aim of the Central Communist Party’s Resolution No 29/NQ-TW in 2013 on fundamental and comprehensive renovation of education and training, which has determined to “strongly shift the educational process from mainly equipping knowledge to comprehensive development of learners’ capabilities and qualities” (Communist Party of Vietnam, 2013) This is also the goal of Vietnamese higher education specified in Article 39 of the Law on Education (2019), is “to train learners capable of self-study, creativity, and adaptability to the working environment” (The National Assembly of Vietnam, 2019) Moreover, it is specifically affirmed in Article 5 of the Law on Higher Education (2012) for undergraduate students as “…capable of working independently, creatively and solving problems of their own trained industry” (The National Assembly of Vietnam, 2012) At the same time, it is also possible to ensure the quality assessment standards for university training programs according to Circular 04/2016, whereby, it is stated that the teaching and learning activities must promote the training of skills to enhance lifelong learning ability of learners (Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training, 2016) Thus, SDL needs to be considered to include in legal documents and strategies or plans, curriculum

as a solution with focus on taking learners and the learning process as the center of the education Because andragogy and SDL all refer the individuals’ proactive role in learning This shows both the innovation

of educational assessment purposes, considering assessment as learning (the students actively occupy knowledge through learning) as well as the representation of the “student-center oriented” and “problem-based learning” according to students’ learning needs and goals

Secondly, training curriculum, syllabus and teaching methods in universities should be designed

basing on the students’ experience and learning needs According to andragogy theory, adult students have their certain experience from their own learning (and working) process Therefore, they may not want to learn what do not bring benefit to their work or needs Therefore, the training curriculums should focus on issues/problems related to the learners’ work or personal life In addition, learning should focus

on solutions to solve students’ on-going problems and difficulties

Thirdly, the role of the teacher and students should be clearly defined, in which, the teacher provides

advice, guidance and create a learning environment to promote students’ participation and autonomy in learning to achieve knowledge, skills and learning results in the most effective manner Meanwhile, students actively involved in their learning process; set up their learning objectives, plan and prepare resources for learning Students actively learn while the teacher supports and motivates in the learning process

For students: learning must be considered as a process To achieve optimal learning results, students must actively participate in the learning process, not passively absorb information, and take responsibility about their own learning

For teachers: adult students often learn by doing, they want to be involved As they learn, they often relate what they are learning with known experiences Therefore, to help adults learn more effectively,

it is advisable to start from their own knowledge and understanding and include examples and problems

in learning content that must be appropriate and relevant to students

Fourthly, learning context should be well cared At higher education institutions, the learning

environment plays an important role to promote the students’ learning A comfortable learning environment could help students more interest in their learning Therefore, it is advisable to minimize the causes that make them feel stressed or not open in the learning process Learning would be more effective if the learning context is favorable Additionally, educators should create opportunities for students to actively participate in the learning process Students should involve in training contents and their learning process For example, when participating in a course, students could express their own perspectives They may want to be “more participated” in their learning rather than simply receiving information from the teachers

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