Applying Reader - Response Theory In Teaching Lyric Poetry Reading In High School To Fulfill The Req...

APPLYING READER RESPONSE THEORY IN TEACHING LYRIC POETRY READING IN HIGH SCHOOL TO FULFILL THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE VIETNAMESE LITERATURE CURRICULUM (2018) Nguyen Minh Nhat Nam, Chau Hue Mai, Tran Phat Dat, Nguyen Thi Ngoc Thuy (Ho Chi Minh University of Education) Abstract The Vietnamese Literature Curriculum (2018) (VLC2018) operates in high schools by 2022 This new curriculum requires high school teachers to teach students communication skills, especially literature reading skills, in a compet[.]

READING IN HIGH SCHOOL TO FULFILL THE REQUIREMENTS

OF THE VIETNAMESE LITERATURE CURRICULUM (2018)

Nguyen Minh Nhat Nam, Chau Hue Mai, Tran Phat Dat, Nguyen Thi Ngoc Thuy

(Ho Chi Minh University of Education)

Abstract: The Vietnamese Literature Curriculum (2018) (VLC2018) operates in high schools by 2022

This new curriculum requires high school teachers to teach students communication skills, especially literature reading skills, in a competency-based orientation In this context, this study aimed to propose adequate strategies for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school by applying reader-response theory to fulfill the requirements

of the VLC2018 To construct a theoretical basis, we connected three concepts in reader-response theory with the curriculum’s orientation of teaching reading Two main methods in the study were survey and pedagogical experiment method Survey questionnaires collected data from 51 teachers and 415 students at high schools in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) The survey revealed that teachers used a few active methods and techniques to enhance students’ active engagement and response to lyric poetry, and students read lyric poems in an incompletely competency-based approach Thus, the findings of this study included ten strategies for eliciting and developing high school students’ responses to lyric poetry through reader-centered, cooperative, and integrated learning activities These ten strategies are implemented before, during, and after students read the poem A small-scale experiment based on the VLC2018’s reading outcomes was conducted on 43 grade 11 students at Tran Khai Nguyen high school (HCMC) Pre-test and post-test results showed that strategies proposed by the study were relatively usable in the actual classroom and moderately developed students’ skills and interest in reading lyric poetry In conclusion, this study will assist high school teachers in designing response-based lesson plans for teaching lyric poetry reading to meet the renovation requirements of the Vietnamese Literature Curriculum (2018).

Keywords: reading skill, lyric poetry, high school teaching, reader-response theory, Vietnamese Literature

Curriculum (2018).

1 INTRODUCTION

Following a competency-based orientation, the Vietnamese Literature Curriculum issued by the Vietnam Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in 2018 (VLC2018)1 centers on training students

in four communication skills, including reading, writing, listening, and speaking, to develop their linguistic and literary competencies (MOET, 2018, p.5) Of four skills, reading skill is highly emphasized

in the VLC2018, indicating the importance of teaching this skill For example, regarding students from

1 This is a shortened name of the curriculum’s full name: Vietnamese General Education Curriculum in Literature (Chương

trình giáo dục phổ thông môn Ngữ văn của Việt Nam).

grade 10 to grade 12, time for practicing reading constitutes around 60% of the total educational time, according to the VLC2018 (MOET, 2018, p.90) As Literature has its aesthetic nature, the VLC2018

asks students to “spend more time reading literary texts” (MOET, 2018, p.89), which means teachers

need to prioritize literary texts as reading materials for students Furthermore, the VLC2018 will operate

in grade 10 by 2022 The context mentioned above motivates this study to look into literature reading

skills in high school (grade 10 – 12).

From grade 10 to 12 in the VLC2018, lyric poetry (lyric) is a literary text genre that is relatively

perplexing for high school students to comprehend due to its linguistic conciseness, complexity, and polysemy Adding to the difficulty of reading lyrics in high school in the future is the VLC2018’s

requirement of a high reading skill associated with literary genres in high school (MOET, 2018, p.11), which asks students to read at the level of analyzing and evaluating (MOET, 2018, p.15) To help

students overcome this difficulty when the VLC2018 operates, teachers are responsible for providing them instructive and appropriate support to obtain the required skills by the VLC2018 and passion in reading lyric poetry in class

The VLC2018 aims at “helping students know how to read and read on their own” (that is,

helping them perceive and use reading skills), “actuating the active, creative reading,” “instructing and encouraging students […] to eagerly engage in meaning-making, […] to employ personal knowledge,

to utilize life experience in reading” (MOET, 2018, p.82) However, many current methods of teaching

lyric poetry in high schools might have overlooked students’ active role and engagement with the poem

In this sense, the teacher directs students to a passive reading in which they are not personally connected

with the poem (Pham & Ha, 2019) and are preoccupied with the teacher’s interpretations of the poem (Nguyen, 2021) Students consequently lack the competency to read and make meanings of a given

poem on their own There is an urgent need for renovating current methods of teaching lyric reading in

high school to prepare for the VLC2018’s operation in 2022 As the VLC2018 is only a general teaching

framework, not including step-by-step strategies for organizing learning activities, it is necessary to

study teaching strategies to fill the gap between the curriculum and the actual teaching

In this study, we applied reader-response theory to propose adequate strategies for teaching lyric

reading in high school to fulfill the requirements of the VLC2018 Chiefly developed by L Rosenblatt,

N Holland, S Fish, and J Culler, reader-response theory has many implications for teaching active

and creative reading skills similar to the pedagogical orientations of the VLC2018 in teaching reading

Both reader-response theory and the VLC2018 appreciate the importance of the reader’s response to the

text, considering reading as a meaning-making process based on the reader’s background knowledge and experience From the response-based viewpoint, to form and train high school students skills in

reading lyric poetry, teachers need to shift their methods from transmitting predetermined interpretations

to instructing students how to approach, discover a poem and respond to it on their own to achieve

competency, which also helps teachers to satisfy the requirements of the VLC2018 The questions of this study were:

1 What are the adequate strategies for teaching lyric reading based on reader-response theory to fulfill the requirements of the VLC2018?

2 Are the strategies for teaching lyric reading based on reader-response theory practicable and effective in developing skills in high school according to the VLC2018?

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Studies on the teaching of reading from the viewpoint of reader-response theory

Rooted in the 1930s within the works of L Rosenblatt and officially established in the late 1960s and 1970s, reader-response theory exerted a strong influence on literary criticism and the teaching of literature In the 1980s and 1990s, there was a wave of studies on response-based principles, methods, and framework of teaching reading, with prominent authors such as L M Rosenblatt, R E Probst, J

A Langer, R Beach Rosenblatt (1986) presented some implications for building a literature curriculum based on her transactional theory of aesthetic reading and responding Rosenblatt’s findings served

as a basis for response-based teaching Probst (1988) employed Rosenblatt’s transactional theory to proposed five assumptions and seven principles for instruction in the literature reading class Langer studied the reading process, including three stages (before reading, during reading, and after reading) (Langer, 1982, p.47) and four stances (“being out and stepping into an envisionment,” “being in and moving through an envisionment,” “stepping back and rethinking what one knows,” and “stepping out and objectifying the experience”) (Langer, 1992, p.40) In 1994, Langer conducted intensive research in which she proposed nine general guidelines for response-based instruction and a framework of optional teaching strategies from a reader-based perspective (Langer, 1994, p.207-209) Langer’s studies proved the practicability of applying reader-response theory to the literature instruction in the classroom and offered teachers helpful, optional strategies for developing students’ thinking Regarding an inclusive and comprehensible introduction to the response-based approach for teachers, Beach (1993) connected five different perspectives of reader-based theories (textual, experiential, psychological, social, and cultural) to propose strategies for planning literature reading lessons and eliciting the student’s response The studies mentioned above provide a basis for Vietnamese authors to study response-based teaching in the educational context of Vietnam From 2012 to 2016, Pham T T H (2012), Hoang T

M (2015), Nguyen T H N and Duong T H H (2016) introduced the reader-response theory and the problem of teaching reading from a reader-response perspective From 2016 to 2020, authors such as Pham T T H (2016), Tran Q K (2017), Nguyen T T N (2020) focused on the applications of reader-response theory in developing students’ reading competency Studies in Vietnam till 2020 were based on Rosenblatt’s transactional theory and Langer’s framework Our recent study (Nguyen et al., 2021) went beyond this limit by applying Fish’s concept of “interpretive community” to work out the techniques for eliciting the student’s beliefs and organizing multi-dimensional discussions However, studies on response-based teaching in Vietnam thus far have been mostly theoretical, proposing a teaching model

or a set of implications/strategies, while few experimental studies have been conducted to measure the practicability and efficacy of applying reader-response theory in the teaching

2.2 Studies on approaches and strategies for the teaching of lyric poetry reading in high school

As aware of the challenge with which high school students may struggle when reading lyric poetry, both foreign and Vietnamese authors studied the principles and strategies of teaching students to read poems Widdowson (1975) suggested a stylistic approach to the teaching of poetry reading Dias (1979) presented a response-based approach to teaching poetry in high school for developing independent readers The strategies for teaching lyric poetry proposed by Somers (1999) were question-building and discussion-making, which allow students to interpret by responding to the poem at different levels, making it lively and multi-meaning

In Vietnam, studies on approaches and strategies for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school

are content-based or competency-based The content-based studies mainly include the works of Tran

T D et al (1978), Nguyen T H (2000), and Nguyen V C (2013) These authors valued the role of the teacher in exploiting the poem and giving lectures on it, and they focused on strategies for teaching

particular poems rather than teaching students how to read The competency-based studies include

studies of several authors such as Nguyen T N H (2014), Nguyen T T L (2017), Do N T et al (2020), Pham T T H and Ha T H (2020), Nguyen P M (2021) These authors developed models,

strategies, and techniques for teaching reading lyric poetry for high school students, such as

genre-based teaching (teaching students to read with the knowledge of lyric poetry’s features like rhyme,

rhythm, lyric voice, etc.), connected and integrated teaching (using techniques to connect the poem with the actual world and the student’s life), and response-based teaching There have been a few specific studies on teaching reading skills with lyric poems in high school from the response-based theoretical

perspective Nguyen T N H (2014) employed Langer’s framework in organizing reading lessons with lyric poetry based on the student’s response Nguyen T T L (2017) utilized Rosenblatt’s transactional view for building a system of reading exercises for high school students Nguyen P M (2021) was also based on Rosenblatt’s theory to propose a system of aesthetic reading questions (before-reading, during-reading, and after-reading) used in teaching lyric poetry in high school However, the reading questions

or exercises presented in these studies still contained some predetermined meanings of the poem After reviewing previous studies, we concluded that the response-based and competency-based teaching of lyric poetry reading has been broadly and thoroughly studied in foreign countries, especially America, but it is relatively new to Vietnam as an approach to teaching lyric poetry reading in high school In Vietnam, reader-response theory has served as the theoretical basis of some studies, but it has been limited to the transactional-experiential viewpoint Our study differs from the previous studies in Vietnam by applying three reader-response concepts (theoretically broader than previous studies) and connecting them with the VLC2018’s requirements of reading lyric poetry to construct a theoretical basis of teaching lyric poetry reading

3 THEORETICAL BASIS

3.1 Reader-response concepts and their implications for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school

Reader-response theorists asserted that the meaning of a literary text does not exist outside the reader’s response, the result of reading activity in a particular context (emotion, evaluation, connection,

etc.) Different reader-response viewpoints revolved around three interdependent factors: the text, the

reader, and the socio-cultural context (Beach, 1993) Based on Beach’s three-factor model, we selected

three reader-response concepts that can be applied in teaching reading lyric poems in high school

The first concept is “literary convention” (Culler, 1980), implying that reading is influenced

by conventions in the literary text When reading a lyric poem, students need the teacher’s guide to

acquiring the knowledge of conventions of lyric poetry by which they can read and understand the poem The second concept is “aesthetic transaction” (Rosenblatt, 1986), implying that reading is

influenced by the reader’s personal experience Teachers need to connect the poem with students’

background knowledge and experience, exploiting and developing their response to the poem through each stage of the reading process

The third concept is “interpretive community” (Fish, 1980), implying that reading is intersubjective

and influenced by the socio-cultural context (context-sensitive) Teachers need to connect both the

poem and the students with the context when the poem was written and the current context, building a cooperative classroom to enhance the role of interpretive communities among students

3.2 Lyric poetry: definition and feature

Lyric poetry is a literary genre A lyric poem is a statement expressing emotions and attitudes of

a speaker who is called lyric subject or lyric persona (the character in the poem who is an “avatar” of

the lyric subject) Words in a lyric poem are polysemic (having multiple meanings), highly aesthetic, interrelate, and collectively forming a complex structure (Tran et al., 2014) Table 1 shows typical elements representing generic features (generic conventions) of lyric poetry In the VLC2018, mostly these elements are required to be identified, analyzed, and evaluated by students when they practice reading skills with lyric poetry

Table 1 Generic features of lyric poetry

Visual level The display of the poem on the written text (space, alignment, etc.)

Phonetic level Rhyme, rhythm, phonetic stylistic device

Lexical-semantic level Words, image, icon, symbol, lexical-semantic stylistic device

Line and stanza level Syllable, line, sentence, stanzas (paragraphs) of poetry; phonological, syntactic stylistic device Compositional level Arrangement, versification (if any), composition (if any)

Textual level The poem as a whole

Thematic unity and

coherence Lyric subject, lyric persona, and drama of emotion and attitudes

Elements representing movements (symbolism, surrealism, etc.)

3.3 The VLC2018’s orientation of teaching lyric poetry reading from grade 10 to grade 12

The aim of the VLC2018 in teaching lyric poetry reading is to develop students’ competency of

reading a poem – knowing how to read Examining the VLC2018, we deduced the structure of lyric poetry

reading competency in grades 10 – 12 from the expected reading outcomes set by the VLC2018 (Table 2).

Table 2 The structure of lyric poetry reading competency in grades 10 – 12 (VLC2018)

Competency’s components Competency’s general displays/aspects

Language knowledge

Literature knowledge

(knowledge of lyric poetry features,

authors, etc.)

General knowledge

Personal experience (in life and in

reading lyric poetry)

Content-Form reading

1 Identifying the poem’s facts

2 Connecting and analyzing the poem’s facts

3 Generalizing and explaining the poem’s structure and meaning

4 Evaluating the poem’s structure, meaning, and merit Relating, comparing, connecting, and Extended reading

5 Relating and connecting the poem with oneself to express feelings

and personal evaluations, to infer messages/lessons, to perceive the impact of the poem on the way of thinking; relating and connecting

the poem with the socio-cultural context to evaluate the poem; relating

and comparing the poem with other literary texts

6 Employing the experience of reading the poem to read other

poems; employing knowledge after reading the poem to solve actual/

hypothetical problems

Predicting, identifying, connecting,

visualizing, inferring, reasoning,

analyzing, evaluating, determining

reading motives, tracking, etc.

Feelings and emotions, eagerness, and

activeness when reading the poem

The VLC2018 also requires teachers to stick to the generic features of lyric poetry when teaching,

paying attention to the role of students in reading activities, focusing on differentiating the student’s competency in lyric reading, integrating reading skills with writing, speaking, and listening skills, using

active methods and techniques

4 METHODS

4.1 Questionnaire survey

The questionnaire survey was used for collecting data on the current state of teaching lyric poetry

The survey sample included 51 teachers and 415 students from 07 high schools in HCMC The survey was conducted from March 4 to March 25, 2021

Table 3 The participants of the survey

Teacher

with 1 – 5 years of experience with 5 – 10 years of experience with over 10 years of experience

51

12 17 22

23.5%

33.3%

43.1%

Student

in grade 10

in grade 11

in grade 12

415

70 284 61

16.8%

68.5%

14.7%

The questionnaire included 4-point Likert scale questions on two contents: (1) the frequency of methods and techniques for teaching lyric poetry reading; (2) the frequency of activities organized in

lyric poetry reading time Each question had four given answers represented by 4 values: 1 = Never; 2

= Sometimes; 3 = Often; 4 = Very often.

4.2 Pedagogical experiment

The pedagogical experiment was used for verifying and evaluating the practicability and

effectiveness of the strategies proposed by our study A small-scale experiment based on the VLC2018’s

reading outcomes was conducted from March 27 to April 3, 2021, on the class 11A4 at Tran Khai

Nguyen high school (HCMC) as an experimental group The experimental group’s size (number of

students participated) was 43 (N = 43)

The supplemental methods in the experiment were: (1) observation for observing the teacher’s activities and the classroom atmosphere during the experimental lesson; (2) interview for collecting the teacher’s evaluations on the experimental lesson; (3) questionnaire survey for collecting the students’

opinions on the experimental lesson

The design of this experiment was a quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design because the random assignment was difficult Besides, there was no control group in this experiment Firstly, our aim was

not to compare the validity of the strategies proposed by our study (as the treatment for the experimental

group) with that of current strategies (in the control group) Secondly, our proposed strategies are completely associated with the VLC2018’s orientation (competency-based) while current strategies are

strictly confined to the orientation of the current curriculum (content-based) The comparison is thus insignificant due to the obvious difference between the two orientations

In this experiment, the dependent variable was the student’s competency in reading lyric poetry The independent variable was the response-based and competency-based strategies The experiment

procedure included five stages:

(1) Setting reading outcomes for the pre-test and post-test, and experimental lesson Six of the

VLC2018’s reading outcomes (O) were selected as learning objectives for the experimental lesson and

as assessment objectives for the pre-test and post-test: O1 – Assessing the aesthetic value of words

and structures; O2 – Analyzing typical details and their relationship in the whole of the work; O3 – Analyzing and evaluating the feelings and emotions the writer expressed in the text; O4 – Analyzing and evaluating the message the text sends to readers through its artistic form; O5 – Applying reading

experiences, life experiences, and knowledge related to the history of Vietnamese literature to make

comments on the literary text; O6 – Analyzing the significance or impact of the literary text in changing

individual’s thoughts about literature and life In the pre-test and post-test, each outcome was assessed

through certain questions with given scores and expressed numerically in a fixed score percentage (%)

(2) Administering the pre-test (T1) as primary observation of the dependent variable to all

students in the experimental group The poem Chân quê (Countrylike) by Nguyen Binh was assigned as

the reading material for the test T1’s individual and average scores were recorded

(3) Administering the experimental lesson as the implementation of the independent variable

(treatment) The students in the experimental class learned a lesson on reading lyric poetry This lesson

lasted for two school periods (90 minutes) These periods were extra-curricular periods, which means

they were not confined to the current curriculum and potentially open to the VLC2018’s reading outcomes The pedagogical orientation of the current curriculum thus did not affect the experiment

results In the lesson, the poems Tương tư (Lovesick) by Nguyen Binh and Chiều xuân (Spring Evening)

by Anh Tho were assigned as the reading materials for the experimental lesson The teacher participating

in the experiment utilized the lesson plan conforming to our proposed strategies

(4) Administering the post-test (T2) as secondary observation of the dependent variable to all

students in the experimental group The poem Tương tư chiều (Lovesick Evening) by Xuan Dieu was

assigned as the reading material for the test T2’s individual and average scores were recorded

(5) Assessing the experiment results, including individual and average scores of T1 and T2,

and qualitative data from the participants Through data processing, we examined the change on the

dependent variable’s value (student’s competency in reading lyric poetry) from the pre-test to the post-test, from which evaluating the practicability and effectiveness of the strategies proposed by our study

Data collected from the survey and the experiment was analyzed by SPSS 25.0.

5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 The actual state of teaching lyric poetry reading in high school

The actual state of teaching lyric poetry reading in high school was studied through our survey

conducted in 7 high schools in HCMC Table 4 shows the average frequency of methods and techniques

that teachers used in teaching lyric poetry reading

Table 4 Methods and techniques for teaching lyric poetry reading (N = 51)

Methods

Techniques

11 Four-square (“Table-cover”) and Gallery walk 1 4 2.61 66

M = Mean; SD = Standard deviation

In Table 4, the mean of items ranges from 2.37 (item 13) to 3.37 (item 2) Methods (items from 1 to

7) most often or highly used in teaching lyric poetry reading were dialogic teaching (M = 3.37), group

discussion (M = 3.27), traditional lecture-based teaching (M = 3.07), and problem-based teaching (M

= 3.00) The least often used method was literature club (M = 2.25) Regard techniques (items from

8 to 14), mind map (M = 3.10) was highly or often used, while learning worksheet (M = 2.88) and

visualization (M = 2.78) were moderately used These results revealed that teachers were relatively

aware of using some active methods and techniques in teaching lyric poetry reading because the items

in Table 4 are mainly active teaching methods and techniques

Table 5 shows the average frequency of learning activities in the lyric poetry reading time in high school from the viewpoint of students

Table 5 Learning activities in the lyric poetry reading time in high school (N = 415)

1 Activating background knowledge and experience, setting goals and motives

2 Directly reading the poem 1 4 3.20 .81

3 Eliciting during-reading experiences with the poem 1 4 2.66 93 Practicing skills in reading lyric poetry

Survey results in Table 5 revealed that the organization of activities in the lyric poetry reading time

in high school quite focused on before-reading (item 1, M = 2.71) and during-reading activities (item 2,

M = 3.20) as well as students’ reading skills associated with lyric poetry, mainly identifying (M = 2.73) and generalizing (M = 2.72) Assessing activities (M = 2.57) was noticed but no so often The survey

results showed a tendency of competency-based teaching

The survey results indicated a potential of fostering competency-based teaching of lyric poetry reading in high school, as there was a group of teachers using some methods and techniques towards developing students’ competency

5.2 Response-based strategies for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school (to meet the VLC2018’s requirements)

Based on the theoretical grounds and survey results, we prosed a system of response-based strategies for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school to satisfy the VLC2018’s reading outcomes (Table 6)

Each strategy aims at training students a particular reading skill (displaying an aspect of student’s competency) in a specified circumstance (coming across the poem’s rhymes, symbols, emotions, visual form, etc.) For practical purposes, we suggested manageable methods and techniques compatible with

each strategy At the systematic level, these strategies have determined goals and their underlying three principles The system aims at:

(1) guiding students to read and respond to a lyric poem adequately, constructing its meanings and gaining knowledge on reading skills;

(2) developing the literary experience;

(3) developing the student-student and student-teacher cooperation through dialogic discussion inside and outside the classroom

Three principles of these strategies are:

(1) complying with the characteristics of reading activity (conventional, continuous and transactional, context-sensitive and intersubjective) and the features of lyric poetry;

(2) complying with the VLC2018’s structure of lyric poetry reading competency in grade 10 – 12

and ensuring the integrated and differentiated teaching;

(3) ensuring the systematicity (the interrelation of strategies) and flexibility (the compatibility with various teaching methods and techniques)

Table 6 Strategies for teaching lyric poetry reading in high school

STRATEGIES IMPLEMENTED BEFORE READING

Strategy 1

Exploiting students’

beliefs and experiences

of students on issues

related to the poem

Purposes: creating engagement and activeness; creating a scheme for reading the poem Aspects of competency can be trained: identifying the poem’s facts; connecting the

poem with the background experiences

Skills can be trained: identifying; predicting; connecting

VLC2018’s reading outcomes: relating, comparing, connecting

Suggested methods/ techniques: dialogic teaching; KWL; brainstorming; freewriting; etc.

Strategy 2

Recalling and

supplementing students’

background knowledge

related to the poem

(particularly knowledge

of genre conventions)

for reading the poem

Aspects of competency can be trained: identifying the poem’s facts; connecting the

poem with the background knowledge

Skills can be trained: identifying; connecting

VLC2018’s reading outcomes: relating, comparing, connecting

Suggested methods/ techniques: games; brainstorming; KWL; keyword-card; etc.

Strategy 3

Evoking students’

motives and desires

when reading the poem,

creating aesthetic

expectations within

students, setting goals

for reading the poem

Purposes: creating engagement; setting the reading goal; creating an aesthetic state

of mind before reading the poem

Aspects of competency can be trained: connecting the poem with oneself Skills can be trained: connecting; predicting; goal setting

VLC2018’s reading outcomes: relating, comparing, connecting

Suggested methods/ techniques: dialogic teaching; KWL; student-generated

question; etc.

STRATEGIES IMPLEMENTED DURING READING

Strategy 4

Exploiting the student’s

literary experience while

reading the poem

Purposes: maintaining reading engagement; practicing identifying and expressing

(feelings)

Aspects of competency can be trained: identifying the facts in the poem; contacting,

connecting the poem with oneself to express general feelings about the poem

Skills can be trained: identifying; emotion expressing; connecting; visualizing

VLC2018’s reading outcomes: reading details, expressing feelings, and personally

evaluating

Suggested methods/ techniques: dialogic teaching; cooperative teaching; learning

worksheet; Think – Pair – Share; side-note; etc.