Assessment Of High School Students’ Critical Thinking: A Research Overview

ASSESSMENT OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKING A RESEARCH OVERVIEW Tran Thanh Nam Nguyen Phuong Hong Ngoc Nguyen Thi Bich Lien Tran Van Cong (VNU University of Education) Abstract Critical thinking is a form of directed, problem focused thinking in which the individual tests ideas or possible solutions for errors or drawbacks It differs from the logical appraisal of arguments extending beyond a single argument, which is essential for any education system A deep understanding of aspects, a[.]

THINKING: A RESEARCH OVERVIEW

Tran Thanh Nam Nguyen Phuong Hong Ngoc Nguyen Thi Bich Lien Tran Van Cong

(VNU University of Education)

Abstract: Critical thinking is a form of directed, problem-focused thinking in which the individual tests ideas

or possible solutions for errors or drawbacks It differs from the logical appraisal of arguments extending beyond a single argument, which is essential for any education system A deep understanding of aspects, assessment criteria, and critical thinking methods will provide a solid foundation for expanded and flexible national education This present study used the literature review method to give an overview of research on the basis sides of critical thinking assessment for high school students from around the world and in Vietnam The main contents included: assessment methods and tools, challenges that exist in assessing critical thinking, developing and adapting assessment tools Some suggestions for evaluating critical thinking for high school students in Vietnam were provided.

Keywords: assessment, critical thinking, students, literature review.

1 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

In the world, critical thinking was researched many decades ago The definitions, frameworks, assessment tools and methods, etc were available for everyone who wanted to know about it With finding keyword “critical thinking”, google scholar gave 9.020 results embraced articles, reports, and books However, this critical topic was little in Vietnam and most of them focus on “critical thinking skills developments” for secondary, high school and college students (Le Thi Thanh Truc, 2018; Ngo Hai Yen, 2020; Nguyen Thi Thuy Trang, 2020; Hoang Thuy Xuyen, 2020; Nguyen Thi Ngoc Huyen, 2020;

Vu Thi Ha Thu, 2020; Chu Thi Mai Huong, 2021; Bui Ngoc Quan et al., 2021; Nguyen Thu Ha, 2021) Meanwhile, the first primary step before implementing any program, solution or strategy was assessment There was not adapted tool/instrument process for Vietnam students From 1993, Ennis determined seven purposes of critical thinking assessment, as follow: (1) diagnosing the levels of students’ critical thinking; (2) Giving students feedback about their critical thinking prowess; (3) Motivating students

to be better at critical thinking; (4) Informing teachers about the success of their efforts to teach students

to think critically; (5) Researching critical thinking instructional questions and issue; (6) Providing help in deciding whether a student should enter an educational program; and (7) Providing information for holding schools accountable for the critical thinking prowess of their students (Ennis, 1993)

Regarding concept, it is essential to mention three definitions of critical thinking by leading

researchers First, according to Robert Ennis: “critical thinking is reasonable, reflective thinking that

is focused on deciding what to believe or do” (Ennis, 1985) Sternberg thought that “Critical thinking comprise the mental processes, strategies, and representations people use to solve problem, make decisions, and learn new concepts” (Sternberg, 1986) and the last, Richard Paul defined that “critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it” (Paul et al., 1988)

Besides, there were many other definitions of critical thinking In the research report of Lai in 2011, this author summarized about 20 definitions of critical thinking and arranged them into three approaches: philosophy, cognitive psychology, and education (Lai, 2011) There were commonalities include: critical thinking is a type of thinking; it applies to all subject matters; involves reflection, looking back, suspending judgment; being a critical thinker includes knowledge, skills, attitudes, and dispositions (Hitchcock, 2017) In general, these concepts had a unified idea that critical thinking was the process

of analyzing and evaluating thinking based on careful consideration of the evidence to make decisions Designing a critical thinking assessment is complicated and needed a combination of human resources in different fields, such as experts, assessment developers, measurement experts, institutions and faculty members (Liu, et al 2014) Moreover, assessing critical thinking can meet challenges such

as differences in background beliefs when using multiple-choice tests (Ennis, 1993) It was difficult or impossible to build a tool that can be applied for all students globally because an international scale, inventory or questionnaire must be adapted when used in different countries Even so, the combination between choosing specific theory, screening cultural contexts and referring to available tools are core criteria This article will present available assessment tools and methods for high school students; the process of developing and adapting assessment tools; and challenges that exist in the process of assessing critical thinking Some suggestions for evaluating critical thinking for Vietnamese high school students are provided

1.2 Critical thinking in education

The role of critical thinking in education

In total education innovation, new things are required on education for the human model that schools need to aim to form in learners One of the new requirements is the ability to think critically, which is a dialectical thinking process that involves analyzing and evaluating existing information from different perspectives for the problem posed to clarify and confirm the correctness of the problem Critical arguments must be clear, logical, full of evidence, meticulous and fair Critical thinking is an essential thinking skill in all fields, especially in education The ability to think clearly and rationally

is crucial in education and teaching The ability to think well and solve problems systematically is an essential condition for creating talent in education Today critical thinking is critical when it is fueled by information and technology The developing society places increasing demands on using flexible minds, analyzing data, and integrating diverse knowledge sources into problem-solving Good critical thinking promotes and helps teachers and learners adapt to educational innovation Critical thinking can improve the presentation and language skills of teachers and learners Thinking clearly and systematically can improve the way teachers and students express ideas Critical thinking also develops the ability to link and interact with parents to jointly organize collaborative activities to improve the quality of education and training Critical thinking drives creativity Finding a creative solution to a problem requires more than just new ideas The new ideas themselves must be useful and relevant to the problem at hand

Critical thinking plays a pivotal role in evaluating new ideas, selecting the best ones, and adjusting them

if necessary Critical thinking contributes significantly to the innovation of teaching methods and the cooperation of teachers to jointly innovate teaching methods in schools

Critical thinking is important to self-reflection To take control of our lives and make it meaningful,

we need to recognize our self-worth and be alert when making decisions Critical thinking is what will help teachers control themselves when educating students Critical thinking provides an opportunity

to understand differences in conclusions, assumptions, and hypotheses, frequently asking for the views of others and making an effort to recognize errors in others’ views, possible biases in those views, and the danger of misinterpreting the evidence influenced by personal opinions Good critical thinking is the foundation of science and equality in education Science requires the use of argument

in testing and validating theories The more effective functioning of education requires teachers and learners to reason about educational issues to spread the correct values and overcome false biases and prejudices (Lipman, 2003)

The role of critical thinking in high school students

In education that emphasizes thinking critically, learners play a central, self-aware, active, and proactive role, creatively developing themselves Encouraging learners to access various sources of information and knowledge through many forms of activities and practice, research, argue, critique, and select statements obtained to discover new knowledge, ideas, and creativity Create and practice a variety

of skills In the educational process aimed at developing critical thinking ability, learners and teachers together learn and solve problems of interest to learners through debate and dialogue Learners can learn and share with friends and teachers by finding arguments, discussions, and conversations to defend their point of view, listening to other people’s opinions, supplementing and perfecting knowledge, and training logical thinking when combining absorbing good ideas from teachers friends Then new knowledge and skills are formed for each individual—the student Developing critical thinking is a condition for training students’ presentation skills and language use Through the process of reasoning and debating; Students learn to express their thoughts and ideas more clearly, logically and convincingly Critical thinking is a condition for developing students’ creative ability Through exploring and researching to see problems from many different angles, students will have the opportunity to come up with new ideas, avoiding stereotypes and machines Thinking critically helps students have no prejudice in the learning process (know how to listen and accept opposing opinions, know how to consider different points of view, and will change their views when inferences show that change must be made) Through critical thinking, students can apply required standards and certain conditions for a statement to be believable Students are trained and developed the ability to argue (make arguments with supporting evidence, identify, evaluate and construct arguments) and reasoning ability (capable of drawing conclusions from one or more information by seeing the logical relationship between the information) The ability to think critically, see problems flexibly will help students practice self-control in the face of pressures in study and life (Beyer, 1995)

According to Ngo Vu Thu Hang (2018), Vietnam is innovating a general education program to strengthen students’ competencies As a result, more studies outlining the competencies are required as a foundation for educators to construct appropriate lessons to assist form and develop these competencies

in children Problem solving and creativity are two mainly targeted skills among the key competencies

aimed at by the New General Education Program (Ministry of Education and Training, 2018) Developing these skills cannot be separated from developing critical thinking skills because they are intimately connected

2 RESEARCH METHODS

This study used the literature review method to collect research on critical thinking assessment for

high school students We found materials in Google Scholar, Researchgate, Wiley Online Library, VNU

Journal of Science with words: definition/concept of critical thinking, assess/evaluate critical thinking, critical thinking tools, critical thinking tests, etc The selected research met the following criteria: (1)

Research on assessment tools and methods of critical thinking included available tools and tools that were building or adapting; (2) These methods and tools involved high school students There were not criteria of published time

After that, we arranged these studies into the following groups:

- The first was critical thinking assessment methods and available tools for high school students The main contents or subdomains, age, Cronbach’s alpha, etc., would show in this part

- The second was design research to develop and adapt critical thinking assessment instruments for high school or college students There were a lot of tools that were built or adapted in many different countries These would be essential reference materials for our or other researcher’s next research in the future

- The last were challenges in the process of assessing critical thinking and building tools for high school students This part would present difficulties, even traps, when conducted the assessment tools

3 RESULTS

3.1 Assess high school student’s critical thinking

There was a note that the assessment method would vary with the assessment purpose and criteria

In 1995, Paul offered several criteria for assessing critical thinking, as follow: It should assess students skills and abilities in analyzing, synthesizing, applying, and evaluating information; It also should contain items that, as much as possible, are examples of the real-life problems and issues that people will have to think out and act upon (Huffman et al 2000) Several methods/strategies were used to test critical thinking For example, Oermann (1997) lists five techniques for measuring critical thinking

in nursing and nursing clinical practice: (1) observation of students in practice; (2) questions for critical thinking; (3) conferences; (4) problem-solving strategies; and (5) written assignments Critical thinking was also evaluated on the products of learner learning, such as essays (Elisanti et al 2017; Saputra et al 2018; Triastuti et al 2021) In addition, there were surveys, tests, portfolios - a collection of student work, written

or multimedia (Possin, 2008; Sarigoz, 2012; Fuad et al., 2017)

In the world, the tools built to assess critical thinking, the aspects evaluated were diverse, such as:

- California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory included seven scales: open-mindedness, analyticity, cognitive maturity, truth-seeking, systematicity, inquisitiveness, and self-confidence, with Cronbach’s alpha for the overall instrument was 0.92 This tool was used to assess critical thinking disposition in high school through the graduate level (Facione et al 1994)

- Watson–Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal measured high-level reasoning and critical thinking

It included five parts: inference, recognition of assumptions, deduction, interpretation, and evaluation of arguments (Ennis, 1958)

- Ennis–Weir Critical Thinking Essay Test was a general test of critical thinking ability in argumentation It took the form of a letter to the editor of a fictional newspaper In the letter, the writer proposed and offered a variety of arguments in support of it The Ennis-Weir was most appropriate for use with high school and college students Inter-rater reliabilities of 0.86 and 0.82 for 27 college students and 28 eighth-grade students (Ennis et al 1985)

- The Cornell Critical Thinking Tests (CCTT; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko, 2005) assesses general critical thinking ability, including induction, deduction, evaluation, observation, the credibility

of statements, assumption identification, and meaning The technical manual does provide some score reliability and validity information reporting internal consistency reliability estimates ranging from 0.67 to 0.90 for Form X (student grade 5-12+) (French et al 2014)

- In addition, there were other tools included: Collegiate Learning Assessment+ (Council for Aid to Education, 2013), Collegiate Assessment of Academic Proficiency (CAAP Program Management, 2012), Halpern Critical Thinking Assessment (Halpern, 2010), etc These tools assess aspects such as the ability to reason, analyze, debate, and evaluate, decision-making, problem-solving, etc The authors also discussed how to design tools in Likert or multi-selection style or qualitative questions (Liu et al., 2014)

In Vietnam, some tools have been adapted For instance, Van Nguyen et al (2020) translated and assessed the psychometrics of the critical thinking questionnaire for medical professionals and nurses during clinical practice, with Cronbach’s alpha of 0.98, the internal correlation coefficient of 0.81 Confirmatory factor analysis indicates that this Vietnamese version is consistent with the proposed model Another approach to assessment included was based on learners’ products For instance, Doan Thanh Huong (2010) evaluated the critical thinking expressed in the essays of 3rd-year students based on the aspects outlined by Stapleton, with reference to Ennis-Weir’s criteria Research by Pham Ngoc Thinh (2018) used Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal to assess critical thinking for undergraduate students However, most critical thinking assessment tools are built and adapted for undergraduate students, the number of assessment tools for high school students is limited

3.2 Develop and adopt critical thinking assessment instruments for high school students

According to some authors who have developed thinking tests (Watson-Glaser, 1980; Taylor & Getzels, 1975), the general criteria for selecting a thinking test are: (1) It must be related to the theory of thinking; (2) It must involve creative and critical thinking behavior in the real world; (3) It must contain different aspects of thinking behavior; and (4) It must be attractive, attract respondents; (5) It must be designed in such a way that a person can respond to their experience with whatever they want; (6) It must generate information that can be reliably attributed to meaningful aspects of thinking; and (7) It must clearly state guidelines, scoring instructions, testing time, and scoring procedures

The following table summarizes some processes for developing and adapting a tool for assessing students’ critical thinking:

Table 1 De

Author(s) (Publishing year)

Gülen (2019)

Pilot: 307 students Main application: 500

Five steps: 1 Preliminary Research - Literature review Identify dimensions - Define measurement content Prepare the scale 2 Prepare the scale - W

- Ask for expert advice - Conduct scale testing - Analysis of scale test data - Check the validity and reliability of the scale Adjust the scale 3 Collect data - Implement the scale on the sample 4 Research on validity and reliability - Research on reliability - Research on the validity - Data analysis 5 Results - Results of the scale by gender and grade level - Final version of the scale

the optional scale as calculated as 0.66 in pilot implementation

scale was 0.699, and the value of the optional scale was calculated as 0.755 - Validity:

Author(s) (Publishing year)

Redhana et al (2017)

Students in junior high school 1

Four steps: 1 Research and data collection - A summary of related documents - A survey of 90 teachers

ten secondary schools was conducted 2 Preparation - Determine the scale and sub-scale, the number of items, the type of the items, and the questionnaire format for students to fill out 3 Create a preliminary product - Set up items

and negative 4 First product testing - Expert valida

They attentively study each statement and attempt to comprehend the meaning of

maturity consisting of six subscales Results of expert

Gelerstein et al (2016)

Research overview to find critical thinking patterns Sample identification Design the content

shows that the test is reliable The

3.3 The challenges in assessing and building critical thinking tool for high school students

According to Adams et al (1996), critical thinking was an abstract and complex concept that was difficult to measure and evaluate The assessment of critical thinking might face several difficulties, challenges and problems such as the validity and reliability of the assessment tool, students need to seriously implement a assignments that they could not include in the course or graduation requirements, resources for implementing assessment, and how to help teachers understand the need for assessment, etc (Bers, 2005)

Some of the challenges in critical thinking assessment in higher education were highlighted by Liu et al (2014) Firstly, a significant issue in developing a critical thinking assessment was striking

a balance between the evaluation’s authenticity and its psychometric quality Secondly, developing a standardized critical thinking tool for education is needed to ensure that the assessment is instructional relevant Teachers were generally concern about the limited relevance of assessment findings for general student learning outcomes, because these assessment are often developed in isolation from curriculum and teaching Thirly, the evaluation should be designed to give information for institutional or individual use, affecting psychometric characteristics such as reliability and validity The results of an institutional level assessment must only be valid at the group level, but the results of an individual assessment must

be valid at the personal level Fourthly, as mentioned earlier, each of these approaches defines critical thinking differently Because they were based on different definitions, the development of critical thinking assessment tools will be diverse Until now, many existing frameworks and assessments describe critical thinking as a general skill This could indirectly impact the assessment tool development, particularly in determining the structure and content that the tool assesses

The time to conduct the assessment and the cost are issues that needed to be considered while using the available assessment tests Some existing tests needed relatively extensive testing durations for each person to complete For example, the Cornell Critical Thinking Test takes 50 minutes to complete, the Critical Thinking Assessment Battery takes 2.5 hours to complete, the California Critical Thinking Skills Test takes 45 minutes to complete, etc (Liu et al., 2014) Furthermore, the cost of using these tools

is an issue that should be considered

4 CONCLUSIONS

There are various measures available now that have been developed to assess critical thinking

in high school students However, the number of available tools remains limited According to our literature review, no critical thinking assessment tool for high school students has been studied and implemented in Vietnam

The process of developing and implementing a critical thinking assessment takes into account many challenges The tool development process needs to unify the approach and definition, taking into account the learning outcomes of high school students Before being put into practice, assessment tools must be psychometrically evaluated on several groups of students During the development of the tool, the researchers noticed the cost and testing duration in relation to the context of Vietnamese students Furthermore, educational institutions and educators must increase their awareness and critical thinking skills This not only helps instructors assess students’ critical thinking skills, but it also helps teachers understand students’ critical thinking skills, how to identify and assess critical thinking skills, and students’ readiness to think critically They can include critical thinking into their teachings, therefore directly contributing to improving students’ critical thinking skills

Acknowledgment: This study is funded by VNU University of Education, Vietnam National University,

Hanoi, under research project number QS20.04

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