(Advanced series in agricultural sciences 7) professor john k matsushima (auth ) feeding beef cattle springer verlag berlin heidelberg (1979) (1)

In feedlot rations where cattle are fed high-moisture ensiled grain 30-35% moisture with silage as the major forage, the dry matter consumption is usually lower than when dry grain is fe

Advanced Series in Agricultural Sciences 7

Co-ordinating Editor: B Varon, Bet-Dagan

Editors: D.F.R.Bommer, Rome B.R.Sabey, Fort Collins G.W.Thomas, Lexington Y.Vaadia, Bet-Dagan

L D Van Vleck, Ithaca

John K Matsushima

Feeding Beef Cattle

With 31 Figures

Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 1979

Department of Animal Sciences

Colorado State University

Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA

ISBN-13: 978-3-642-67201-9

DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-67199-9

e-1SBN-13: 978-3-642-67199-9 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material

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repro-© by Springer-Verlag Berlin· Heidelberg 1979

Softcover reprint of the hardcover lst edition 1979

The use of registered names, trademarks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence

of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use

2131/3130-543210

Preface

The purpose of this book is to provide the reader with some basic information applicable to cattle feeding It is intended to adapt some of the basic principles of nutrition in applied form

During the past few decades there have been various changes in type and form of feeds available for livestock feeding due to new kinds of equipment Mechanization has made it possible to perform certain opera-tions of the beef production program more efficiently and economically With all the new innovations and advances in animal nutrition combined with the capabilities of the computer, it becomes very challenging for everyone to keep up to date on the latest information in the field of cattle feeding and production

The text was written with the intent of utilizing the raw materials, facilities, equipment, etc which are available in the United States The terminology of certain materials such as feed ingredients will vary from one country to another One term which is frequently used in this text is forage Although the term roughage is used more commonly in the United States it has been replaced with forage in this text

Proximate Feed Analysis

Chemical Classification of Nutrients

Water

Drinking Water

Moisture Content of Feed and Diet

Effect of Moisture Content of Feed or Diet on Animal

Protein

Digestible Protein

Choice of Protein Supplements

Nonprotein Nitrogen Sources

1.6.1.3 For Pregnant or Dry Cows on Pasture and in Drylot

1.6.1.4 For Feedlot Cattle on High Energy Rations

1.6.2 Ammonia Toxicity

References and Supplemental Literature

Chapter 2 Classification of Feeds

References and Supplemental Literature 80 Chapter 4 Processing Feeds for Beef Cattle

Steam Flaking; Pressure Flaking

High-Moisture Grains; Reconstituting

Soaking

Sprouting

Exploding

References and Supplemental Literature

Chapter 5 Systems of Feeding

5.2.1 Feeding Replacement Heifers 96

Chapter 6 Feed Additives

For Young Calves

For Feedlot Cattle

For Range Cows and Bulls

References and Supplemental Literature

Chapter 7 Gtowth Stimulants

For Range Cattle

For Feedlot Cattle

Proximate Feed Analysis

For a given feed the nutrient content will vary from one batch to another There are many different causes which vary these nutrient contents Visual appraisal of a feed may not give an accurate estimate of its feed value Under certain circum-stances it would be desirable to have a feed sample sent to a laboratory to have it

Fig.l Components in inorganic and

organic portions of dry matter

analyzed The diagram of nutrients (Fig 1) with numerical values in parenthesis may be helpful to interpret a feed analysis report For example, if the laboratory report shows 88% dry matter, the moisture or water content of the feed is 12%

Chemical Classification of Nutrients

The proximate analysis for the six basic nutrients does not distinguish the various components of a nutrient For example, the ash content of a feed or ration does not tell the amount of calcium, phosphorus or any other element, nor does the crude protein analysis indicate how much urea or nonprotein nitrogen is present

in the feed or ration Figure 1 gives a list of various components that may be present in the inorganic and organic portions of the dry matter; Table 1 gives the chemical analysis

Table 1 Chemical analysis scheme of inorganic and organic nutrients

ala-No~esse~tJal -{nine, serine, proline,

Nonprotein-{urea, biuret, amines

Simple Fattyacids

Pseudo Vitamins A, D, E, K, carotene {

Crude fiber C Polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellul

Water-soluble vitamm C,

Drinking Water 3

1.1 Water

Water is occasionally referred to as moisture, particularly when reference is made

to the nondry matter portion of the feed The moisture content of feeds has various implications on the quality of feeds, feed storage, daily consumption of diet by cattle etc., while quality and quantity of drinking water available to cattle may have direct bearing on the health and performance of animals (Fig 2) There-fore, the discussion on this nutrient will be divided into two categories

1.1.1 Drinking Water

The requirements for water by the animal are just as important, perhaps more so than for protein, energy, minerals and vitamins However, feeding standards do not include the water requirement for animals, probably because of several un-controllable or variable factors such as air and water temperature, humidity,

Fig 2 Water is extremely important An adequate supply of good quality water keeps the animals in good health and aids in the utilization of other nutrients (Photo: courtesy Gary S

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE (oF)

*PER POUND OF DRY MATTER INGESTED

Fig 3 Water consumption of European and Indian cattle as affected by increasing temperatures (After Winchester and Mor- ris, 1956)

moisture, protein and salt content of the ration, breed of cattle, frequency of watering, physiological condition ofthe animal, and quality of water

Figure 3 illustrates the water consumption of European and Indian cattle as affected by increasing temperatures The Brahama-type cattle apparently have lower water requirements than English breeds as air temperature increases When salt (NaCl) is force-fed in the diet it will increase water consumption Marked water consumption by feedlot cattle is noticeable when the salt concen-tration in the diet exceeds 1 % (dry matter basis) or 4 oz (115 g) per head daily Water quality may affect water consumption When the total solids in water

may start to decrease This is probably a result of the decreased water tion High salt content, usually 1 % or higher, in drinking water will also decrease

case of nitrates, levels of 100-200 ppm may be toxic

Water Requirements The water requirements of animals are met from three

sources, (1) drinking water, (2) water contained in the feed, and (3) the metabolic water that is formed within the body as a result of oxidation in the tissues The latter source is important from the standpoint of water conservation, since the catabolism of 1 kg of fat, carbohydrate or protein gives rise respectively to the formation of about 1190,560 or 450 g of water

The quantity of water consumption by beef cattle will range from one to one and a half gallons per 100lbs bodyweight or 8.4-12.51 per 100 kg bodyweight

Effect of Moisture Content of Feed or Diet on Animal Performance 5 Table 2 Water intake by cattle according to dry matter consumption (From Agr Res Council, 1965)

6.5

3.5 3.6

4.1

4.7 5.5

The British Agricultural Research Council publication suggests that water intakes

to meet requirements depend on dry matter intake The figures are noted in Table 2

1.1.2 Moisture Content of Feed and Diet

1.1.2.1 Effect of Moisture Content ofF eed or Diet on Animal Performance

When certain feeds, such as silages, are high in moisture content and fed in large quantities, it appears that this condition affects dry matter intake In feedlot rations where cattle are fed high-moisture ensiled grain (30-35% moisture) with silage as the major forage, the dry matter consumption is usually lower than when dry grain is fed Whether the lower dry matter consumption is due to the moisture content of the high moisture grain, or whether it is due to differences in volatile fatty acid or pH content between ensiled and dry grain has not been verified Extremely dry rations create dust problems Addition of water to such rations would overcome such a problem Also, moist rations usually prevent fine pow-dery material separation from coarser materials If feed intake is directly related

to the dry matter content of the ration, what is the maximum level of moisture that can be present in the ration without affecting feed consumption and animal performance? Experimental data with feedlot cattle on a high concentrate diet where tap water was added to bring the moisture level in the diet to 35% had no significant effect on dry matter consumption, animal performance, dry matter and nitrogen disappearance in the digestive system or digesta or fecal pH values (Fig 4) The data is presented in Table 3

The data presented in Table 4 reveal that adding water to the ration just prior

to feeding does not necessarily influence dry matter intake The reason for this is, perhaps, explained by the data shown in Table 5, which reveal that if the ration is low in moisture the animals will drink more water, and conversely if the ration is high in moisture

Fig 4 When extremely dry rations or finely ground feeds are fed to cattle they will have a tendency to short their feed The above photo shows a ra- tion that is well mixed and combines chopped hay and a small quantity of silage so that the ration is not excessively dry

or dusty (Photo: courtesy Bill Fleming)

Table 3 Effect of adding tap water to a high concentrate feedlot ration"

(control) Avg dry matter consumed per day, lbs:

Effect of Moisture Content When Purchasing Large Quantities of Feed 7 Table 4 Dry matter consumption, apparent dry matter and nitrogen disappearances, and digesta pH values as affected by water addition to rations

(control)

Apparent dry matter disappearance, %

Apparent N disappearance, %

s Data taken from Gen Ser Publ 934, Colo Exptl Station

b Means in the same row not possessing the same superscripts differ significantly (P<O.OI)

Table 5 Average daily water consumption by feedlot cattle that are fed rations containing different quantities of added tap water just prior to feeding, per head basis

1.1.2.2 Effect of Moisture Content on Feed and Storage Qualities

Unless high moisture feeds are to be fed to livestock immediately or within one or two days, they will start to heat and may cause internal combustion or if they do not heat very much, they may eventually mold In order to keep feed from molding or spoiling, the moisture content should be less than 15% under most conditions

1.1.2.3 Effect of Moisture Content When Purchasing Large Quantities ofF eed

The feedlot industry relies heavily on purchased feeds, particularly the grains Bids are quoted on the quality of grain, i.e., grade number 2, 3 etc Quite often one does not recognize the tremendous difference in the cost of grains of the same quality grade but with a difference in moisture content An example is shown in

Table 6 Extra cost to finish a steer with grain of different moisture content a

a The assumption is that a steer will consume 2000 Ibs of grain during the feeding period

b 2,000 Ibs of grain with 88% dry matter furnishes 1,7601bs dry matter, thus, it will require 2,0231bs of 87% dry matter grain to furnish 1,760 Ibs dry matter

Table 6 The illustration shows that if grain is bought at $ 120 per ton with a dry matter content of 88% and that it takes 2000lbs of the grain to get a steer to market, it will probably take 2071lbs of grain which has 85% dry matter Thus, instead of having' $ 120 for the grain cost they will be increased to $ 124.26

1.2 Protein

Crude protein value of a feed or ration is obtained by multiplying the nitrogen content by the factor of 6.25 Thus it is possible to obtain a figure exceeding 100% For example, urea used in ruminant feeds contains approximately 44.8% nitrogen

or 280% crude protein (44.8 x 6.25)

little significance in ruminant nutrition since polygastric animals can synthesize the essential amino acids The latter part of the statement is true, but it should be emphasized that rumen bacteria influence the utilization of different nitrogen sources Furthermore, the utilization of nitrogen is dependent upon the time lag between the point of introduction into the rumen and microbial protein synthesis Therefore, the adaptation of the microflora in the rumen to nitrogen sources of poor quality protein (those devoid of or low in essential amino acids) is an important consideration in deciding what kinds or types of protein supplements might be used with rations or feeds which are inadequate in protein (Fig 5)

1.2.1 Digestible Protein

Digestible protein values are listed frequently for individual feeds Probably a large majority of the digestible protein values are fairly accurate However, there are so many factors which affect the digestion coefficients Since published aver-

Nonprotein Nitrogen Sources 9

Fig 5 In order to determine the digestion coefficients of nutrients, such a protein, it is necessary to know the quantity of nutrient consumed and excreted Research trials that are conducted with facilities as shown above enable scientists to determine accurately the value

of feeds when fed singly or in combination with other feeds

planes of nutrition, they are probably several percent too high when applied to full-fed animals The available evidence in the literature indicates that increased levels of feed intake are generally associated with a depression in digestibility Therefore, if digestible protein values for different feeds are used, there may be wide discrepancies when attempting to formulate rations on the basis of digestible protein or crude protein basis The most common practice today by most nutri-tionists and feedlot consultants is to use the crude protein values

1.2.2 Choice of Protein Supplements

Ordinarily the major criteria in selecting a protein supplement depends upon the cost per unit of protein For example, if cottonseed meal is priced at $ 200 per ton with a guarantee of 45% crude protein, and soybean meal is $ 210 per ton with 46% crude protein, the price advantage would go to cottonseed meal because each pound of protein in cottonseed meal costs 22.2 cents, while a pound of protein in soybean meal costs 22.8 cents ($ 210 ;.- 2000 lbs= $1O.50/cwt;

$ 10.50 ;.- 46 lbs = 22.8)

1.2.3 Nonprotein Nitrogen Sources

Urea and other similar compounds which contain an abundance of nitrogen can

be used advantageously to meet the protein needs of cattle Some of the

limita-their use The nonprotein nitrogen compounds are to cheapen the cost of rations

It must be recognized that the nonprotein nitrogen compounds do not furnish any energy in contrast to the preformed protein supplements such as cottonseed meal, soybean meal etc Furthermore, they do not furnish other nutrients, such as minerals or vitamins

1.3 Fats

Ordinary fats in plant and animal tissues when combusted produce nearly 2.25 times more calorie or energy than proteins or carbohydrates However, in cattle rations there are several restrictions to the addition or use of high levels of fat Rations composed of common ingredients which are generally fed very fre-quently provide over 3-4% fat or ether extract on dry matter basis Addition of vegetable oils or animal fats in feedlot rations seldom has any effect on the body fat characteristic The primary adverse effect of adding excess levels of either plant

or animal fat is due to the digestive problems which are encountered

In order to prevent dust in extremely dry rations, or to increase the energy content of the ration, the maximum quantity of supplemental fat to include in the ration should not exceed 5% by weight on dry matter basis

Occasionally animal fats become competitive with cereal grains as a source of energy for feedlot cattle The recommended level is between 3 and 5%, which is in addition to the fat already present in the ration A rule of thumb to follow to determine how much a feeder can afford to pay for the supplemental fat is 2.5 times the cost of grain (e.g., if corn is priced at 5 cents per pound, the afford-able price for fat would be 12.5 cents per pound)

1.4 Carbohydrates

Crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract make up the carbohydrate portion of a feed

or ration To evaluate a feed on the basis of its carbohydrate content may be misleading The following example (Fig 6) indicates that Feed A would be a supe-rior feed in terms of energy value because of its higher carbohydrate content However, the lower crude fiber content in Feed B would rate it as a superior feed

as far as energy potential is concerned

Starches and sugars supply the readily available energy to cattle Since sugars are readily fermentable in the rumen, the microbes cannot use excessive quanti-

Efficient Use of Urea 11 ties A discussion is presented elsewhere in this publication on the feeding of molasses, which is basically composed of sugars

Crude fiber is important in giving bulk to feedlot finishing rations Bulk is generally referred to as the weight of a given volume of feed Forages are high in crude fiber, but if these feeds are finely ground the bulk characteristic is decreased Concentrates, on the other hand, are low in crude fiber and therefore in their natural form would tend to lack the bulk characteristic Processing concentrates

by special methods, such as flaking (described elsewhere in this publication), can change the bulk density of such feeds

1.5 Nonprotein Nitrogen (NPN)

Werske et al (1879) reported that ruminants could convert nonprotein nitrogen

to protein Hart et al (1939) reported that either urea or ammonium carbonate was used by dairy heifers They also found that dietary soluble carbohydrates increased NPN utilization Loosli et al (1949) found that the ten essential amino acids could be synthesized in the rumen by feeding lambs a synthetic diet contain-ingNPN

Urea was approved in the United States as a feed ingredient in ruminant diets

in 1940 by the Association of American Feed Control officials

Ammonia is the common denominator in the utilization of NPN by

free ammonia, it is useless as a nitrogen source to the microorganisms The following steps appear to be involved in its complete utilization (Nat Acad Sci., 1976) :

1 Ure a ~NH urease 3 +CO 2

2 Carbohydrates :!~~a;:::l) volatile fatty acids + keto acids

3 NH3 + keto acids :~~~O!~:l) amino acids

4 Amino acids ~ enzymes microbial protein

5 Microbial protein animal enzymes;n t h e ) free amino acids

abomasum and smal intestines

6 Free amino acids are absorbed from the small intestine and used by the host animal

1.6 Efficient Use of Urea

Since the bacteria in the rumen must utilize the ammonia from urea, it is tant to satisfy the nutritional needs of the rumen microflora Energy and minerals must be included in the diet in proper quantities for the bacteria to make efficient use of the ammonia Thus, urea in beef cattle rations is used more effectively in high concentrate rations than high forage rations The starch from cereal grains

impor-or sugars that are present in molasses provide the energy fimpor-or the bacteria Fats

Fig 7 Urea may be included in a dry or liquid supplement for either feedlot cattle (shown above) high energy ration, or to range cattle to furnish part of the nitrogen for rumen microbial protein synthesis (Photo: courtesy Allied Chemical Corp.)

from the hydrolysis of lipids are not used very effectively by rumen microbes (Fig 7)

Sulfur is essential in maximizing the efficient utilization of urea nitrogen The

used, as well as inorganic sources

Trace mineralized salt is recommended on a free-choice basis Research data

do not indicate what trace elements and what quantities of certain trace elements are beneficial or toxic Thus, force feeding of trace mineral supplements on a routine daily basis appears questionable at this time

Quite often under range conditions when the protein supplements are fed once daily and in situations when supplemental hay must be fed, it is recommended that the hay be fed first before the protein supplement This will usually give the less aggressive cattle a greater opportunity to get their share of protein supple-ment Also, there is a possibility that urea toxicity may be reduced in very aggres-sive cows which may consume more urea than is safe

1.6.1 Urea Supplements for Various Feeding Conditions

and Weights of Cattle

Because urea is highly soluble and the ammonia is released very rapidly in the rumen, the quantity of urea present in the protein supplement is very important Furthermore, the substitution of urea for natural protein supplements implies

For Wintering Calves Over 500 lbs, for Replacement Heifers, and Young Bulls 13

comes of any value to the host animal - the cattle Young calves which posses nonfunctional rumen have limited microflora to utilize the urea nitrogen to meet the protein needs Animals on high fibrous diets with limited energy OJ; minerals would not be able to utilize urea nitrogen very effectively unless proper conditions are met Also, the fact that it generally takes from two to three weeks for the microbes to make adaptations to drastic changes in diets, particularly from high

to low fiber diets and from preformed dietary protein to nonprotein sources, it is

man-ufacturer of protein supplements, the feedlot operator, the rancher or anyone else who uses nonprotein nitrogen supplements is familiar with the proper levels that can be fed for efficient use and what management guidelines must be exercised

1.6.1.1 For Weanling Calves

Weanling calves weighing from 300lbs to around 400lbs should not be fed tein supplements containing urea Low levels of urea in the protein supplement may not necessarily kill the animals, but could have an adverse effect on their performance When the rumen microflora cannot utilize the urea nitrogen effec-tively, the gains will be lower and less economical, as indicated by their lack-luster hair coat

pro-Since the protein requirement for weanling calves varies from 8.5% to nearly 18%, depending upon the weight and expected gain, it should be readily apparent that a protein supplement containing a high level of urea would adversely affect the protein utilization

protein supplement such as cottonseed meal, soybean meal, linseed meal etc for

at least 60 90 days before any urea-containing supplement is introduced

1.6.1.2 For ft'intering Calves Over 500 lbs, for Replacement H elfers, and Young Bulls

Animals which have been weaned for three or four months and have access to plenty of forage may be fed a protein supplement which contains urea The level

of urea should be limited to less than O.llb (45 g) per head daily This means that

if this quantity of urea does not satisfy the protein requirement, the remainder of the protein must come from a natural supplement

The following example is shown to illustrate a situation where a rancher has

500 lb (225 kg) replacement heifers on winter pasture which contains 6% protein

on dry matter basis If these heifers are required to gain approximately 1.0lb (0.5 kg) daily, the heifers require a 9.5% protein diet with a daily intake of approx-imately l4.3lbs (6.5 kg) of dry matter Thus, the rancher will have to feed approxi-

contains 10% urea, the heifers would get O.llb urea per head daily

Solution: 14.31b dry matter requirement x 9,5 %= 1.36lbs protein

-13.3 lb dry matter from pasture x 6 % = 0.80

In the event that the pasture condition is such that the animals will not have adequate feed, or when the forage is covered with snow so that feed supply is limited, it is recommended that a protein supplement without urea be used

1.6.1.3 For Pregnant or Dry Cows on Pasture and in Drylot

The decision to use a protein supplement with or without urea will depend on the forage available and the amount of readily available energy is the supplement Under most conditions a rancher will not feed 2 or 3lbs of grain Therefore, in situations where the cows receive readily available energy and to be sure that the very aggressive animals can be fed to stay within the nontoxic level of urea, a urea-containing supplement can be used Under practical conditions it is desir-able to figure about O.3 O.4lb (135-180 g) of urea as the maximum possibility that

a cow could consume within a period of 15 min or less (Fig 8)

In drylot where the cows have continual access to feed and the protein ment is thoroughly mixed with the other ingredients, it is possible to feed up to O.4lb (180 g) urea per head daily Usually when the level of urea exceeds 0.21b (90 g) the feed intake will be reduced

supple-1.6.1.4 F or Feedlot Cattle on High Energy Rations

Feeder cattle coming into the feedlot directly from pasture or all-roughage diets will not respond as well on rations supplemented with a high level of urea as cattle

Fig 8 Urea may be fed free-choice in a liquid supplement Molasses is used as a carrier for the urea (Photo: courtesy Allied Chemical Corp.)

Ammonia Toxicity 15

fed a nonurea supplement Feed intake will be lower, and liveweight gains will correspond In some instances the cattle on urea supplement will catch up in weight, so that at the end of the feeding period no difference in performance will

be realized

When practical, it is recommended that a natural protein supplement be fed for about two weeks and then a urea-containing supplement be introduced Once the urea-containing supplement is introduced into the ration, the level of urea can

be increased to about O.2lb (90 g) per head daily This level can be nearly doubled without fear of toxicity, but feed intake will decrease markedly The ration appar-ently becomes unpalatable to the animals when the level exceeds 0.2 lb daily

ex-Acute ammonia toxicity symptoms appear to be progressive as follows:

a) nervousness and uneasiness,

b) excessive salivation,

c) muscular tremors,

d) incoordination,

e) difficult breathing,

g) front legs stiffen and animal becomes prostrate,

h) violent struggling, bellowing,

i) bloating is common,

Predisposing factors to urea toxicity to cattle appear to be:

a) lack of adequate adaptation to urea,

b) fasting prior to urea consumption,

c) feeding urea with poor quality roughage,

d) feeding diets which promoted a high pH in ruminal fluid,

e) low water intake

Effective treatment for urea toxicity, if applied before tetanic spasms occur, is immediately to administer 5-10 gallons (20-401) of cold water orally Cold water will lower ruminal fluid temperature and thereby reduce ureolyses It will dilute the concentration of ammonia and reduce its rate of absorption from the rumen Four liters of either dilute acetic acid or vinegar given with cold water is more effective than cold water alone Acetic acid will neutralize the toxic effects of free ammonia

References and Supplemental Literature

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Arias, D., Burroughs, W., Gerlaugh, P., Bethke, R M.: The influence of different amounts and sources of energy upon in-vitro urea utilization by rumen microorganisms J Animal Sci

Bond, J., Everson, D.O., Gutierrez, J., Warwick, E.J.: Feed intake and gains of beef cattle as affected by source and level of nitrogen in high energy rations J Animal Sci 21, 728-733 (1962)

Briggs, H.M.: Urea as a protein supplement, 466 pp New York: Pergamon Press 1967 Buchanan-Smith, J G., MaCleod, G K., Mowat, D N.: Animal fat in low roughage diets for ruminants: The effects on nitrogen source and amino acid supplement J Animal Sci 38,

133 (1974)

Burroughs, W., Kohlmeier, R., Barringer, R., Kawashima, R., Trenkle, A: Selenium and vitamin E and K additions to a no-hay finishing cattle ation J Animal Sci 22, 929 (1963) Cardon, B P.: Influence of a high salt intake on cellulose digestion J Animal Sci 12, 536 (1953)

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445, 11 (1961)

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by feedlot animals Calif Feeders Day Rep., p 45 (1964)

Gerken, J.J.,Jr., Fontenot, J.P.: Availability and utilization of magnesium from dolomitic limestone and magnesium oxide in steers J Animal Sci 26,1404 (1967)

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785 (1939)

Haskings, B.R., Wise, M.B., Craig, H.B., Barrick, E.R.: Effects of levels of protein, sources of protein, and an antibiotic on performance, carcass characteristics, rumen environment, and liver abscesses of steers fed allconcentrate rations J Animal Sci 26, 430 (1967) Hatch, e F., Perry, T W., Mohler, M T., Beeson, W M.: Effect of added fat with graded levels

of calcium to urea-containing rations for beef cattle J Animal Sci 34,483 (1972)

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Hays, B W., Mitchell, G E., Jr., Little, e 0., Sewell, H B.: Turnover of liver vitamin A in steers J Animal Sci 26, 855 (1967)

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Jensen, Rue, Mackey, D R.: Diseases of feedlot cattle Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger 1965 Kirk, W G., Shirley, R L., Easley, J F., Peacock, F M.: Effect of carotene deficient rations and supplemental vitamin A on gain, feed utilization and liver vitamin A of calves J Animal Sci 33,476 (1971)

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McCann, e P., Matsushima, J K.: Influence of dietary moisture on steers consuming high concentrate rations II Total water intake, dry matter to water intake ratios, and digestive tract water Beef Nutr Res Colo St Univ Gen Ser 934, 37 (1974 b)

McGuire, R L., Bradley, N W., Little, e 0.: Effects of frequency of feeding on excretion of chromic oxide, crude protein and gross energy and on nutrient digestibility by steers J Animal Sci 25, 185 (1966)

Mitchell, H H.: The effect of the proportions of fat and carbohydrate in the diet upon the excretion of metabolic nitrogen in the feces J BioI Chern 105,537 (1934)

Mitchell, H.H.: The mineral requirements of farm animals J Animal Sci 6, 365 (1947) Morris, J.G., Murphy, G W.: Sodium requirements of beef calves for growth Proc West Sec

Am Soc Animal Sci 23,401 (1972)

Morrison, F.B.: Feeds and Feeding, 22nd ed., 1050 pp Ithaca, N.Y.: Morrison Publishing

National Research Council: Effects of fluorides in animals Natl Acad Sci (1974a)

National Research Council: Feed phosphorus shortage -levels and sources of phosphorus recommended for livestock and poultry Natl Acad Sci (1974 b)

National Research Council: Nutrients and toxic substances in water for livestock and try Natl Acad Sci (1974c)

poul-National Research Council: Urea and other non-protein nitrogen compounds in animal nutrition Natl Acad Sci., pp 120 (1976)

Nelson, AB., Fontenot, J.P., Ross, O.B., MacVicar, R., Darlow, A.E.: The value of 20-,30-, and 4O-percent protein supplements for wintering heifer calves Okla Agr Exptl Sta Bull B-437 (1854)

Oltjen, R R.: Effects offeeding ruminants non-protein nitrogen as the only nitrogen source J Animal Sci 28, 673-682 (1969)

Ott, E.A., Smith, W.H., Harrington, R.B., Beeson, W.M.: Zinc toxicity in ruminants II Effect of high levels of dietary zinc on gains, feed consumption and feed efficiency of beef cattle J Animal Sci 25,409 (1966)

Perry, T W., Beeson, W M., Smith, W H., Mohler, M T.: Injectable vs oral vitamin A for fattening steer calves 1 Animal Sci 26,115 (1967)

Pfander, W H.: Toxic substances in water supplies Proc AFMA 20th Ann Meet Chicago, Il1., p 26 (1970)

Phillips, G D.: The relationship between water and food intakes of European and Zebu type steers J Agr Sci 54, 231 (1970)

Rice, R W., Nelms, G E., Schoonover, C 0.: Effect of injectable iron on blood hematocrit and hemoglobin and weaning weight of beef calves J Animal Sci 26, 613 (1967)

Riggs, J K., Colby, R W., Selle, L V.: The effect of self-feeding salt-cottonseed meal mixtures

to beef cows 1 Animal Sci 12, 379 (1953)

Roberts, W K.: Use of animal tallow and vegetable oils in fattening rations for beef cattle Univ Manitoba, 13 th Ann Rep Livestock Res (1963)

Roberts, W K., McKirdy, J A: Weight gains, carcass fat characteristics and ration ity in steers as affected by dietary rapeseed oil, sunflower seed oil and animal tallow J Animal Sci 23, 682 (1965)

digestibil-Shirley, R.L.: Nutrients in water available to economic animals Proc Nutr Coun Ann Meeting, AFMA, Chicago, Ill., pp 23-25 (1970)

Stangel, H.J., Johnson, R.R., Spellman, A: Urea and nonprotein nitrogen in ruminant tion, 2nd ed Allied Chemical Corp (1963)

nutri-Stone, P A., Fontenot, J P.: Effect of available energy level of fattening rations on utilization

of nitrogen and digestibility by steers 1 Animal Sci 24, 757 (1965)

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Winchester, C F., Harvey, W R.: Effects of protein and energy intake on nitrogen retention and growth of cattle U.S Dep Agr Tech Bull 1364 (1966)

Winchester, C F., Morris, M.J.: Water intake rates of cattle J Animal Sci 15, 722-740 (1956)

Chapter 2 Classification of Feeds

Feeds are generally classified into two broad categories, namely concentrates and forages Concentrates are feeds which are high in energy content The protein content in concentrates varies tremendously, from 2 to 80% Forages, on the other hand, have a much narrower range in protein content, from 2 to 22% One

of the most distinguishing characteristics offorages is their high fiber content The vitamin and mineral contents of concentrates and forages are in general for the most part rather similar

Two thirds or more of the feed consumed by beef cattle is forage Concentrate feeds are, therefore, included in rations where maximum or above average pro-duction is expected Unless cattle are permitted to graze on excellent green pas-ture the year round, or to feed on dry legumes such as alfalfa and clover hay, it would be difficult for a beef animal to gain adequately or reproduce satisfactorily

on forage alone Protein supplements, classified as concentrates, are occasionally needed during periods when pasture forages are low in protein In certain in-stances, energy supplements may be needed Vitamin A and mineral supplements are also needed with most dry forages

2.1 Forages

For convenience of discussion the forages will be divided into two categories; namely, dry, and green forages The dry forages will include those that have been dried naturally or artificially to less than 15% moisture where they can be stored without molding or causing combustion Further, the dried forages will be subdi-vided into legumes and nonlegumes

2.1.1 Dry Forages

2.1.1.1 Legumes

Alfalfa is the predominant cattle feed of the legumes It can be given as the only feed for breeding stock, growing calves and for stockers and feeders where limited gains are desired Because of its excellent source of protein, when alfalfa makes up

it is harvested before the stems become coarse and if there is minimum loss of leaves during harvesting, there is a fairly good supply of energy Calcium is present in quantities which exceed the required level However, it supplies less than half the required level of phosphorus for most classes of beef cattle

One of the drawbacks of alfalfa is bloat It is usually more prevalent when the hay is damp or on days with high humidity Also, bloat is more prevalent when leafy hay is fed rather than coarse stemmy hay Pelleting, cubing, or chopping the hay will not necessarily reduce the hazard

Alfalfa can be fed in several different forms: loose, baled, or chopped hay, cured hay pellets, cubed hay, wafers, or dehydrated alfalfa pellets

sun-Loose or Stacked Hay This has been the most common way to feed alfalfa hay to beef cattle for many years, and in certain areas is still so When fed directly from the stack there is only a minimum of loss However, when stacked hay must be hauled to another location before feeding, the rate of shrinkage can be quite high, ranging from 3 to 15% Another drawback of feeding loose hay, especially in liberal quantities, is that cattle develop a habit of sorting the coarse stems from the leaves

Baled Hay Baled hay has become very popular in recent years and probably more alfalfa hay is fed in this form than stacked hay (Fig 9) It is a very convenient way of feeding cattle, especially on the range during the winter months Baled hay can also be given to feedlot cattle during the first few days when new cattle are brought in In recent years through mechanization, baled hay is now used for

Fig 9 Baled hay, either alfalfa

or grass hay, is a popular form

of supplying forage to cattle arriving from pasture to the feedlot for finishing (Photo: courtesy Bill Fleming)

Other Legumes 21

chopping One of the problems which may be encountered with baled hay is when wire is used for tying the bales, which often causes cattle to swallow short pieces of wire and results in various complications Hence, baled hay tied with twine has become very popular

Considerable loss through trampling is encountered when range cattle are fed baled hay; this loss can be minimized if the quantity is controlled

Chopped Hay Chopped hay is used predominantly in feedlot rations when several feeds are blended together One of its drawbacks is that it causes a considerable amount of dust in handling

Sun-Cured Hay Pellets Loose hay may be made into sun-cured pellets during the winter months This form of alfalfa is very convenient in feeding cattle with the mechanized system; it also facilitates handling and storage In certain types of rations, particularly with feedlot cattle on high concentrate rations, the inclusion

of sun-cured hay pellets may not provide sufficient roughness to facilitate tion However, if the quantity of the sun-cured hay pellets in such rations is limited to one or two pounds per head daily and fed with a limited amount of silage, sun-cured hay pellets usually provide an excellent form of forage Also, in feedlot rations, sun-cured hay pellets will compare very favorably with dehy-drated alfalfa pellets, providing that the protein content in the ration is not below the minimum requirement, as dehydrated alfalfa usually contains about 5% more protein than sun-cured hay pellets

diges-Cubed Hay or Wafers Cubed hay or wafers have become quite popular in certains areas They can be used to the best advantage under range conditions This method of feeding alfalfa minimizes waste and is very convenient in feeding range cattle Usually the feeding value of cubed hay or wafers is dependent upon the quality ofthe alfalfa at harvest time

Dehydrated Alfalfa Pellets Dehydrated alfalfa usually has the highest protein content of all forms of alfalfa, as it is harvested two to three weeks earlier than the normal schedule for other forms of alfalfa Dehydrated alfalfa usually has a guar-anteed protein content of 20% or higher, so that it is frequently used as a protein supplement

In starting calves, dehydrated alfalfa is an excellent feed It is very palatable, and beef cattle will consume it without any hesitancy

Because of its high protein content, the quantity in a ration for beef cattle should be limited In most rations the quantity of dehydrated alfalfa should not exceed 41b at the most

2.1.1.2 Other Legumes

Other legumes that are occasionally fed to beef cattle include red clover, alsike clover, white clover, sweet clover, ladino clover, soybean hay, vetch hay, lespedza hay, and trefoil Depending upon the maturity, the protein content of these leg-umes is comparable to that of alfalfa Although beef cattle will eat any of these legumes as readily as they will eat alfalfa, the availability of these feeds is rather

limited Therefore, their use would be on a limited scale in most areas Very few problems are encountered in the feeding of these legumes; bloat problems are less prevalent with these than with alfalfa

2.1.1.3 N onlegumes

The nonlegumes can be divided into seven categories which include nonlegume hay, fodder, stover, stalks, straw, cobs, and hulls

Hay Numerous types of non legume hay are available for cattle feeding, but a few

of the more common ones include prairie hay or meadow hay, brome hay, thy hay, sudan hay, and oat hay The protein content of nonlegume hays usually ranges from 2 to 10%, depending to a large extent on the stage of maturity when the hays are harvested The longer the growing season, the greater the fiber content, and therefore the lower the protein content

timo-The mineral content, especially calcium and phosphorus, is relatively low, with the calcium content ranging from 0.3 to 0.4% The phosphorus content is exceedingly low, ranging from 0.05 to 0.2%

The nonlegume hays are usually fed as baled hay, stacked hay, and frequently

Stover Corn stover or milo stover does not have nearly the feed value because the grain has been removed The protein content is relatively low, ranging from 2 to 3% Because of the low protein and high fiber content in this feed, it is best to utilize this type offeed for stock cows or for cattle where the gains do not need to

be very high

Stalks Corn stalks usually provide a good source of feed for stock cows and calves maintained for low gains Because of its low protein content, mineral content, and vitamin A, supplementation will probably be needed

Straw Several different types of straw can be fed to beef cattle The different types available include oats, rye, wheat, and barley Oat and wheat straw are usually preferred by cattle Barley straw should be fed with care because of the presence of the awn Varieties of barley with barbed beards may cause sore mouths in cattle Straw contains relatively little protein, about 3 to 4%, with low digestibility It

is also low in calcium, phosphorus, and in most vitamins, especially in vitamin A value

Because of its low nutritive value, straw is fed mostly to stock cows or used in

Silages 23

Corn Cobs From the nutrient standpoint corn cobs are extremely low in all except fiber For maximum feed value corn cobs need to be supplemented with protein, some energy, minerals and vitamins, especially vitamin A, and should be ground before feeding Unless properly supplemented, beef cattle will not eat too much of this feed because of its poor palatability

Hulls Cottonseed hulls and rice hulls are the predominant feeds available for beef cattle In certain parts of the United States either of these two feeds is used as the primary source of roughage Because of their high fiber content, the feeding value

is relatively low Since they are used primarily in feedlot rations to supply the bulk, the deficiency of nutrients is compensated by the protein supplement that is fed in such rations

2.1.2 Green or Succulent Forages

The two major groups of feed that fall into this category include the silages and soilage which is frequently referred to as green chop

Fig 10 Silage can be prepared in upright siIoes, plastic bags, bunker siloes, or in huge trench siloes as shown above Regardless of the shape, size, or type of forage used to make silage

of dry feeds Quite often silages will reduce or minimize bloat This is particularly true when nonlegume silages are used Another advantage in using the silages is that it can be kept for many years, providing that oxygen is kept away from it There are also a few disadvantages associated with silages One of these is that

it is somewhat of a laxative feed Therefore, in certain situations silages should be fed at a minimum or omitted completely For example, at times when beef cows are ready to calve or immediately following calving, silages should be omitted from the ration Other disadvantages may be limited to certain areas In ex-tremely cold temperatures areas silage will freeze in the feed bunks unless the animals consume it readily On the other hand, in areas with hot climate, unless the animals clean up the silages quite readily, the feeds will create problems of molding Another minor disadvantage usually prevails when the corn fodder is not finely chopped before it is put into the silo When coarsely chopped corn silage is fed to calves or sometimes in feedlot rations, the animals will sort out the coarse cobs and other fractions of the plant

In making good quality silage there are a number of prerequisites, listed as follows:

varies from 60 to 75%, but this will depend to a certain extent on how fine the material is chopped before it is put into the silo

2 Proper maturity The forage should be harvested before the rations plete maturity to keep the fiber content from becoming excessively high Corn silage should be harvested during the early dense stage or in the late milk stage Sorghum silage should be harvested when the grain is in the soft dough stage

com-3 Proper packing Unless oxygen is removed through proper packing, the fermentation process will not proceed normally

4 Fineness of chop Usually for corn silage and sorghum silage the fodder should be chopped from 1-2-in lengths, which facilitates packing

5 Proper drainage in the silo A slight sloping in the trench silo is desired so that the material towards the bottom of the silo will not turn acid, the acidity usually being governed by the amount of moisture in the silage material

6 Proper silo walls and cover over the silo This is to minimize molding and shrinkage

Crops Used for Silage There are many feeds that can be ensiled, but the more commonly used silages are prepared from green corn fodder and green sorghum fodder However, silage may be made from other feeds such as green alfalfa, green grass forage, sugar beet tops, raw potato, pea vines, sunflowers and even Russian thistles

2.1.2.2 Corn and Sorghum Silages

Corn silage is the predominant silage in the United States, but in certain areas of the country sorghum silage is usually substituted Figure 4 shows a diagram relating to the factors which contribute to good quality silage Since the perfor-mance of the animal is usually governed by the quality of silage, it is important that good quality silage be prepared

Corn and Sorghum Silages 25 Table 7 Corn plant maturity; pH and lactic acid [Johnson

Table 8 Corn plant maturity; cellulose and protein

Naturally, as the growing plant approaches maturity the dry matter content continues to increase As noted in Table 8 the protein content is not reflected to any appreciable degree in the silage due to the stage of maturity

The differences in nutritive content of the silage would tend to indicate that these differences would be reflected in the digestibility of the nutrients when these

Table 10 Net energy values of good quality alfalfa, corn, oat and sorghum silages (dry matter basis) (National Research Council, 1976)

differ-Feedlot rations for finishing beef cattle utilize the net energy values These net energy values are more accurate in evaluating the potential energy values of feed

as compared to the conventional TDN values The net energy values for good quality alfalfa, corn, oat, and sorghum silages are noted in Table 10 These values are quite accurate when applied to situations when high concentrate rations are fed However, when large quantities of silage are fed such as in backgrounding programs, the net energy values that are conventionally used appear to be low This means that when feedlot cattle are being given a high silage ration, the net energy values of silages for both maintenance and production are higher than the values given to the same silage when used in high concentrate rations

If a preservative is desired for making alfalfa silage, one may use one of the following: (1) 80-100 lbs of cereal grain, usually cracked or ground, per t of green chopped alfalfa; (2) 80-100 lbs of liquid molasses, either cane molasses or beet molasses, per t of green chopped forage

Mineral acids, such as phosphoric acid, may be added to reduce the pH content of alfalfa silage The quantity of phosphoric acid to be added will depend

be added at the rate of 16lbs per t of chopped alfalfa Extreme care should be used

in applying this acid, as it is extremely dangerous

Soilage (Green Chop) 27

To increase the lactic acid content, in the case of corn silage or sorghum silage, ground limestone may be used The recommended level to add is 20lbs of ground limestone or calcium carbonate per t of chopped forage

In certain situations where the protein content of either corn silage or

sorghum silage is to be increased, a high nitrogen material such as urea may be added The recommended level is 10 lbs of urea per t of chopped forage

A number of other preservatives or additives have been tried, but the benefits appear to be very small Enzymes, yeast cultures, bacteria cultures, and similar products may be used, but they do not increase the nutritive value of the silage However, when some of these additives are added to green forages such as corn silage at the time of ensiling, they may keep the temperature of the silage consider-ably lower and also prevent the undesirable odor from developing

2.1.2.4 Hay/age

Haylage is very similar to silage, but the term is usually applied when green chopped alfalfa is allowed to ferment There are several different ways in which haylage can be prepared If a preservative is to be added, green chopped alfalfa

preservative is not to be added, excellent haylage may be made if the freshly cut alfalfa is allowed to dry in the windrow before being chopped and put into the silo The desired moisture in the alfalfa is 60-65% This means that the moisture should be reduced to this level before it is put into the silo

The feeding value of haylage in most cases will be quite similar to the feeding value of corn silage However, for rations which require a certain amount of energy, feeding large quantities of haylage may not produce the gains compared

to a program where corn silage is fed

2.1.2.5 Soilage (Green Chop)

During certain times of the year when silage is not available, feedlots or farm operators will use green chop in their feeding operation This type of feed should

be fed as soon as possible, usually within twelve hours after harvest, otherwise the green chop will begin to heat and the material exposed to the air will start to mold

Crops that are used for green chop include alfalfa, corn fodder, milo fodder and occasionally cereal forages such as oats

Certain precautions should be taken in the use of green chop as a feed for beef cattle

2 Avoid molding

3 Green chop is similar to silage in that it is laxative, and therefore where necessary, precautions should be taken

4 In certain situations the addition of green chop to the ration should be done

gradually, particularly when switching from silage to green chop Feed sumption is usually not affected when switching from silage to green chop or from green chop to silage

2.2.1 Low Protein Concentrates (Less than 15% Protein)

2.2.1.1 Cereal Grains

Cereal grains, in general, are relatively high in energy content and therefore are used in largest quantities for rations which require this nutrient The most popu-lar cereal grain is corn, but the other grains which can be fed to cattle include milo, wheat, barley, oats, rye, and triticale The protein content, weight per bushel and the fiber content for these cereal grains are noted in Table 11

1 Corn Corn (maize) is the most popular feed for beef cattle, as with other classes

of livestock It may be fed in several different forms, namely ground ear corn, whole corn, cracked corn, flaked corn, extruded corn, popped corn, micronized corn, and as high moisture corn

Because of its high palatability, it should be introduced into the ration ually to prevent overeating and other digestive problems It may also be fed as the only grain, but when other energy feeds are relatively cheap in cost, it may be replaced up to a certain point with these

grad-Ground Ear Corn Ground ear corn is frequently referred to as corn and cob meal Since the cob portion makes up about 20% of the total weight of the ear corn, the feeding value of ground ear corn is approximately 80% of cracked corn This feed

is usually recommended for feedlot cattle during the early portion of the feeding

Table 11 Protein and fiber content and weight per bushel of

Fiber

%

2

2 2.5

6

10

2 2.5

Weight per bushel

56 54-56

Cereal Grains 29

entire feeding period, providing that part of the ground ear corn is substituted

expected, it is desirable to limit the amount of ground ear corn to about 50% of the grain portion in the ration

trench silo or any airtight silo and made into high-moisture ground ear corn Because of its moisture content, dry matter consumption will be limited to a certain degree, particularly if it is fed in combination with corn silage or other

high-moisture ground ear corn is used, one of two things may be done: (1) replace part of the silage with some dry roughage, or (2) replace about 25% of the high moisture ear corn with some dry grain

Whole Corn Whole corn is a very convenient way of feeding this grain, larly in high concentrate-type rations Since feedlot cattle will not chew the corn satisfactorily when it is in a high forage ration, it is desirable to use some form of processed corn during the early part of the feeding period when the ration con-tains an abundance of forage It is recommended that whole corn be used in feedlot rations when the concentrate level of the ration is above 50 to 60% Even in high concentrate rations approximately 10 to 15% of the grain will pass through the digestive tract without being utilized This is probably the reason why feedlot cattle will consume from 10 to 15% more whole corn as compared to the feeding of processed corn Feedlot animal gains will usually be the same if fed whole corn or processed corn When the price of corn is higher in relation to the roughages, it will probably pay to feed processed instead of whole corn

particu-Some of the advantages in using whole corn in feedlot rations include: (1) less handling of the grain prior to feeding; (2) less shrinkage; (3) less separation of feed ingredients, particularly when the other ingredients are fed in pelleted or rela-tively bulky form

Whole corn that has been stored for several months due to the low moisture content may decrease in digestibility and have some influence on total consump-tion because of the brittleness of the kernel

In high forage rations it is preferable to feed some form of processed corn

fed with high forage rations, the cattle will not chew the corn very effectively

Flaked Corn Properly processed flaked corn will need from 10 to 15 min of steaming in order to gelatinize approximately 50% of the starch The alteration of the starch, plus the physical change in the kernel, enhances the utilization, and therefore the digestibility of this processed corn is higher than that of whole corn

In comparison to cracked corn, cattle that are fed flaked corn will show from 5 to

10% increased efficiency of gain

Feedlots with less than 1000 head of cattle probably cannot justify the tion of a flaking machine, as the advantage gained in feed utilization by feeding flaked corn will probably not justify the cost of the equipment (Fig 11)

installa-Fig 11 Flaked com (left) is processed by steam pressure and rolling while extruded corn

(right) is produced without steam pressure However, an extruding equipment is required Corn which has been processed by either method produces similar performance in feedlot cattle

Flaked corn can be used successfully in high forage rations as well as in high concentrate rations

amount of forage, particularly if the forage is in the form of a pellet or is finely ground

Cracked Corn Cracked corn or dry rolled corn is the most common form fed in the United States This is because the cost of the grinder or hammer mill is considerably cheaper than a flaker

One of the disadvantages of using cracked corn, particularly in high trate rations, is the fact that there is a great amount of fine powdery material which separates from the cracked kernels When these fine particles settle to the bottom of the feed bunk, feed consumption usually decreases and therefore may affect the performance of the cattle

concen-High-Moisture Corn In certain years, particularly when there is an early frost, or

if sufficient storage facilities are not available, it becomes necessary to dry the corn for proper storage Because of the high cost of drying corn, it may be more economical to grind the high moisture corn and put it into a pit silo or some airtight silo to allow the grain to undergo fermentation This method of feed preparation has become quite popular during the past several years

Cereal Grains 31

For proper packing and optimum fermentation, it is desirable to have the moisture content of the grain at a range between 26-30% Any grain that has between 15-20% should be ground and water added to bring it up to the proper moisture level

In certain types of rations the feeding value of high moisture corn in feedlot rations will be slightly below that of dry cracked corn or flaked corn This is particularly true when high moisture corn is fed in combination with succulent roughage such as corn silage Therefore, in order to obtain the maximum feed value from high moisture corn, it is recommended that the high moisture corn be fed with some dry grain or in combination with some dry forage This will enable the cattle to consume the maximum amount of dry matter and thereby uphold their gains

In high forage-type rations, particularly if a dry forage is fed, high moisture corn will compare very favorably with other forms of processed grain

Popped Corn, Micronized Corn These forms of processed corn are nearly equal in feed value to cracked or flaked corn The feeding value, of course, will depend to a certain extent on the degree of starch gelatinization resulting from the processing

feeding value will be decreased

2 Sorghum (Milo) Because of the small particle size of this grain in comparison

to corn, some of it will pass through the digestive tract without being utilized To overcome this, it is desirable to process this grain The cattle-feeding areas that use this as the predominant source of energy have used the flaking process When milo is flaked properly, its feeding value may be nearly equal to that of cracked corn However, in situations where the cost of a flaker is prohibitive, the grinder may be considered as the next alternative to obtain maximum feed value from this gram

Other methods described under the section of corn can be used in preparing milo for beef cattle However, the preferred method for maximum utilization is the flaking process

therefore not used too frequently as a cattle feed However, when the price mines the point where it can compete with other grains, it may be used satisfacto-rily in cattle rations Most of the wheat varieties range in protein value from 10 to 12%, and therefore this should be considered in formulating rations (Fig 12) Cattle will eat wheat without any hesitancy, but when it is used as the only grain a digestive disturbance frequently known as acidosis may occur In order to minimize this problem, it is recommended that wheat replace up to 50% of the grain portion in the ration

deter-It can be used as the only grain for cattle if it is to be used as an energy source

in high forage-type rations Wheat may be processed under the various forms described under corn However, most of the wheat which is used today is usually cracked

Fig 12 Cereal grains in their original form will vary in size and shape The illustration shows a layer of wheat (top),

corn (center) and hull-less

bar-ley (bottom) It is important

to know the specific istics of various grains and their cost relationships as a feed so that maximum returns can be realized from a feeding program

character-4 Barley Barley is used as a feed grain in areas where this is the predominant grain produced Because of its higher fiber content (approximately 6%), it is not

corn in feed value When barley is fed in feedlot rations in combination with alfalfa hay, this will increase the possibility of bloat, particularly when barley has not undergone sufficient curing after harvest

5 Oats Oats has more fiber than barley, averaging approximately 10% fiber, and compares very favorably with barley in protein content Because of the fiber content in oats, the cattle on high concentrate rations will not eat as much of this grain as compared to corn on a weight basis

This is an excellent feed for growing calves and breeding cattle When the price

of oats is favorable, it can be used as a complete replacement for other grains, and because its protein content is higher than some of the other cereal grains it will take less protein supplementation

6 Rye Rye possesses a peculiar property which makes it compare less favorably

in cattle rations than other cereal grains The peculiar flavor found in rye reduces