Kenneth w raymond general, organic and biological chemistry an integrated approach, second edition wiley (2007)

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G E N E R A L , O R G A N I C , A N D

B I O L O G I C A L C H E M I S T R Y

An Integrated Approach

S E C O N D E D I T I O N

Eastern Washington University

John Wiley & Sons, Inc

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Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.,

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permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street,

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To order books or for customer service, please call 1-800-CALL WILEY (225-5945).

ISBN: 978-0-470-12927-2

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This volume contains selected illustrations from the following texts,

reprinted with permission by John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

• Boyer, Rodney, Concepts in Biochemistry, Second Edition,

© 2002.

• Hein, Morris; Best, Leo R.; Pattison, Scott; Arena, Susan,

Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry,

Eighth Edition, © 2005.

• Holum, John R., Fundamentals of General, Organic, and

Biological Chemistry, Sixth Edition, © 1998.

• Pratt, Charlotte W.; Cornely, Kathleen, Essential Biochemistry,

© 2004.

• Voet, Donald; Voet, Judith G.; Pratt, Charlotte W.,

Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level,

2nd Edition, © 2006.

P R E F A C E

In most GOB texts, a group of chapters on general chemistry is followed by a series of

organic chemistry chapters, which is followed by chapters devoted to biochemistry Years

of experience in teaching health science courses have shown the author that there is a

drawback to this approach: in many cases there is a long time interval between when a

topic is first presented and when it is used again—enough of a break that students’

famil-iarity with the subject matter has often lapsed

In introducing GOB material, this text uses an integrated approach in which related general

chemistry, organic chemistry, and biochemistry topics are presented in adjacent chapters This

approach helps students see the strong connections that exist between these three branches of

chemistry and allows instructors to discuss these interrelationships while the material is still

fresh in students’ minds This integration involves the following sets of chapters:

• Chapter 3 (Compounds) and Chapter 4 (An Introduction to Organic

Compounds) An introduction to bonding and compounds is followed by a look

at the members of a few key organic families

• Chapters 3 and 4 and Chapter 6 (Reactions) A study of inorganic and organic

compounds is followed (after a look at gases, liquids, and solids in Chapter 5) by an

introduction to their reactions

• Chapter 7 (Solutions) and Chapter 8 (Lipids and Membranes) A discussion of

solubility is followed by a look at the importance of solubility in biochemistry

Some reactions from Chapter 6 are reintroduced

• Chapter 9 (Acids and Bases) and Chapter 10 (Carboxylic Acids, Phenols,

and Amines) Principles of acid/base chemistry from an inorganic perspective are

followed by a chapter on the organic and biochemical aspects of this topic

O R G A N I Z A T I O N

This second edition of General, Organic, and Biochemistry: an Integrated Approach

has been written for students preparing for careers in health-related fields such as

nursing, dental hygiene, nutrition, medical technology, and occupational therapy The

text is also suitable for students majoring in other fields where it is important to have an

understanding of chemistry and its relationship to living things Students need have no

previous background in chemistry, but should possess basic math skills For those whose

math is a bit rusty, the text provides reviews of the important material While designed for

use in one-semester or two-quarter General, Organic, and Biochemistry (GOB) courses,

instructors have found that it also works well for one-year courses, especially when

com-bined with the supplement Chemistry Case Studies For Allied Health Students by Colleen

Kelley and Wendy Weeks

In a GOB course it is essential to show how the subject matter relates to the students’

future careers For this reason, this text makes extensive use of real-life examples from the

health sciences

x PREFACE

• Chapter 11 (Alcohols, Aldehydes, and Ketones) and Chapter 12 (Carbohydrates).

An introduction to the chemistry of alcohols, aldehydes and ketones is followed by

a presentation of related biochemical applications

P R O B L E M S O L V I N G

Learning to do anything requires practice, and in chemistry this practice involves solvingproblems This text offers students ample opportunities to do so

In skeletal structures (Figure 4.3), covalent bonds are represented by lines, carbon atoms

are not shown, and hydrogen atoms are drawn only when attached to atoms other than meet and at the end of each line To simplify matters, nonbonding electrons (Section 3.5) are sometimes omitted from skeletal and other structural formulas.

car-102 C H A P T E R 4| A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O O R G A N I C C O M P O U N D S

F

CH C HC HC C H

Aspirin

C C C C C

O C O C H

H H

H H H H

■F I G U R E| 4.3

(Continued)

Drawing condensed and skeletal structures

Draw condensed and skeletal structures of diethyl ether, a compound once used as a general anesthetic.

Strategy

To write the condensed formula, begin by thinking of the molecule as a chain of five

The skeletal structure of diethyl ether is drawn by leaving out all of the carbon and

Research suggests that drinking green tea may help boost the immune system.

Ethylamine (below), produced when one of the compounds in green tea is broken down

in the liver, may be responsible for this immune response Draw condensed and skeletal structures for the molecule.

• Sample Problems and Practice Problems.

Each major topic is followed by a sample problem and

a related practice problem The solution to each sampleproblem is accompanied by a strategy to use when solvingthe problem The answers to practice problems are given

at the end of the chapter

• Revised material: Changed group naming from IA, IIA format to 1A, 2A format(Chapter 2), added details on naming binary molecules and introduced a table ofprefixes used for naming them (Chapter 2), modified treatment of the combined gaslaw and the ideal gas law (Chapter 5), and updated discussion of waxes, fatty acids,phospholipids, and eicosanoids (Chapter 8)

• New Appendicies: Important families of organic compounds (Appendix B) andNaming ions, ionic compounds, binary molecules, and organic compounds(Appendix C)

• Addition of new chapter sections: Reaction types (Section 6.2), Maintaining the pH

of blood serum (Section 9.10), and Oxidation of phenols (Section 10.5)

PREFACE xi

E N D O F C H A P T E R P R O B L E M S 131

| 4.1S T R U C T U R A L F O R M U L A S A N D

F O R M A L C H A R G E S

a b.

in the ions shown in Figure 4.2?

following molecules or ions?

a c.

b.

following molecules or ions?

a c.

b.

Each atom, except for hydrogen, should have an octet

of valence electrons.

a.OH  b.NH

Each atom, except for hydrogen, should have an octet

of valence electrons.

a.PO 4  b.HPO

Each atom should have an octet of valence electrons.

a.SO 3 b.SO 3 

atom should have an octet of valence electrons.

Answers to problems whose numbers are printed in color are given in Appendix D More

8 Define the term “functional group” and describe the features

that distinguish hydrocarbons, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and

esters from one another.

Functional groups are atoms, groups of atoms, or bonds that give a molecule a

par-bons are the carbon–carbon double bond (in alkenes), the carbon–carbon triple

an alkane-like carbon atom Carboxylic acids contain the hydroxyl group attached

carbon atoms belonging to a carbonyl group.

C¬O¬C (C“O)

(¬OH)

• End of Chapter Problems. A large number ofproblems can be found and the end of each chapter, andAppendix D provides answers for the odd-numbered ones.Many of the end of chapter problems are paired and some,marked with an asterisk, are more challenging than others

Each chapter includes a set of Thinking It Through

problems that ask students to go a bit further with one ormore of the concepts presented in the chapter Over twohundred and fifty new problems have been added to thesecond edition Of these, more than half are multi-partquestions and many are challenging

S O L U T I O N S T O P R A C T I C E P R O B L E M S 59

H E A LT HL i n k|CT and MRI Imaging

2.68 a.“Cholesterol Marker” describes using MRI to look for arterial plaque Why is the presence of plaque in arteries a concern?

the technique that is described?

Link is considered “invasive.” What do you suppose

is meant by this term?

are quite similar If given a choice, which would you rather have run?

T H I N K I N G I T T H R O U G H

short-term) of using radiation to treat cancer?

cancer treatment that involved exposure to gamma radiation from cobalt-60 Should the nurse be concerned that he will be exposed to gamma radiation given off by the patient?

died a few weeks later.

nuclear equation for this process.

half-lives?

(Figure 2.13), why is polonium-210 so poisonous?

ILW ILW

S O L U T I O N S T O P R A C T I C E P R O B L E M S

• Interactive Learning Ware Problems. The text’s

website (http://www.wiley.com/college/raymond) features

Interactive Learning Ware (ILW), a step-by-step problem

solving tutorial program that guides students through

selected problems from the book The ILW problems are

representative of those that students frequently find most

difficult and they reinforce students’ critical thinking and

problem solving skills An ILW icon identifies each ILW

problem in the end-of-chapter question section

ILW

Dental Fillings (Chapter 3), Making Weight(Chapter 5), Saliva (Chapter 7), Omega-3 fattyacids (Chapter 8), Biofilms (Chapter 10), Drugs

in the environment (Chapter 11), and RNAInterference (Chapter 14) In addition, six HealthLinks from the first edition have been updated:Body Temperature (Chapter 1), DietaryReference Intakes (formerly RecommendedDaily Allowances) (Chapter 2), CT and MRI(formerly CT and PET) (Chapter 2),

Sunscreens (Chapter 4), Trans fats (Chapter 8),

and Proteins in Medicine (formerly Enzymes inMedicine) (Chapter 13)

The conformation, or shape, that a molecule takes can greatly influence its biological action This point is well

illus-trated by a particular class of proteins, called prions, that have been identified as the cause of mad cow disease

or vCJD (in humans).

Proteins are very large molecules formed from amino acid building blocks Each protein has a favored conformation—

some with the protein chain twisted into zigzagged back and forth in a compact form.

ticles, are a type of protein found in the mentioned above are caused when the normal prion conformation (PrP c ) is twisted into an abnormal shape (PrP sc ) (Figure 4.14).

When PrP sc comes into contact with PrP c , the PrPc proteins change conformation and become PrP sc As PrP sc accumulates in affec- ted animals or humans, sponge-like holes res, and death.

Prion diseases can be transferred from one species to another Cattle are known to get infected sheep, and vCJD in humans has been linked to eating mad cow–infected beef.

118 C H A P T E R 4| A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O O R G A N I C C O M P O U N D S

■F I G U R E| 4.14

Prions

incorrectly folded (PrP sc ) form.

Source:Fred E Cohen, M.D., D Phil and Cedric Govaerts, Ph.D., Department of

Cellular & Molecular Pharmacology, University of California San Francisco (UCSF)

Prion Diseases

Normal Prion Protein (PrP c ) Disease-Causing Prion (PrP sc )

C Y C L O A L K A N E S

4.7

In some alkanes, called cycloalkanes, carbon atoms are joined into rings (Figure 4.15) Like

another by London forces To simplify matters, cycloalkanes are usually drawn using

substituents attached to a ring.

When naming cycloalkanes, the ring is usually designated as the parent, which is

named by combining “cyclo” with the appropriate numbering prefix (Table 4.5) and

that holds that group is carbon 1 (Figure 4.16a), but the number is not included in the

tion and in the direction that gives the lowest numbers Figure 4.16b shows how this

works for the three dimethylcyclopentane constitutional isomers.

Geometric Isomers

The limited rotation of the carbon–carbon single bonds in cycloalkanes has an interesting

side effect in that it allows for the existence of stereoisomers, molecules that

• have the same molecular formula

• have the same atomic connections

• have different three-dimensional shapes

• are interchanged only by breaking bonds

128 C H A P T E R 4| A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O O R G A N I C C O M P O U N D S

flavor when a compound attaches to these receptors and triggers nerve responses How the compound interacts with a given researchers who study the biochemistry of the sense of smell.

recep-The odor and flavor of fruits is often due to a mixture of esters recep-The structure of a particular ester determines how it fits a given receptor, so esters containing a different number of carbon atoms are associated with different odors and flavors For example, the

Constitutional isomers can also have different odors and flavors, as is the case for the “apple-like” and “banana” esters, each of which has the molecular formula C 7 H 14 O 2

Odor and Flavor

Pineapple Apricot Apple-like Banana Rum

Honey

Raspberry Grape

Peach Rose Orange

C O C O

■F I G U R E| 4.24 Esters

Many esters have pleasing odors and flavors.

For one topic in each chapter, a special icon is used to indicate that an on-lineScienCentral article and video clip are available for viewing

These articles and video clips are of interest because they show how thechemistry being presented pertains to current events Each set of end of chapterproblems includes some related to the video content The video titles include:Pork on the Run (Chapter 1), Cholesterol Marker (Chapter 2), Glowing Fish(Chapter 3), Tanning & Health (Chapter 4), Breath Of Life (Chapter 5),Hydrogen Cars (Chapter 6), Kidney Bones (Chapter 7), Teen Steroids (Chapter8), Cystic Fibrosis Mucus (Chapter 9), Meth and the Brain (Chapter 10), ToxinEaters (Chapter 11), Sweet Spot (Chapter 12), Young Hearts (Chapter 13),Cancer Screening (Chapter 14), Exercise Gene (Chapter 15)

In addition to the visible light that is present in sunlight, a higher energy form of electromagnetic radiation called

ultraviolet (UV) is also found It is this UV radiation that makes spending too much time in the sun hazardous to

your health.

UV radiation is divided into three categories (arranged in order of increasing energy) UV-A, UV-B, and

UV-C Although all forms of UV radiation can be harmful, UV-C is the most damaging We do not usually

ozone The UV-A and UV-B in sunlight are not blocked by the atmosphere and it is exposure to UV-B that causes

thought to be relatively harmless, there is now strong evidence that links wrinkles, other skin damage, and skin

can-cer to UV-A exposure.

To some extent, your skin can protect itself from UV radiation When sunlight hits the skin, a particular type of

cells produce melanin, a black pigment that absorbs UV radiation A suntan is the result of melanin production.

UV-A and UV-B light (Figure 4.22) Not all aromatic compounds are suitable for use as sunscreens—many do not

absorb UV, and many are toxic.

The SPF (sun protection factor) listed on the label of a sunscreen blocking UV radiation An SPF of longer to get sunburned with the sunscreen applied than without.

Ecamsule, which was recently approved for use in the United States, has been a sunscreen ingredient in Canada and Europe since 1993.

O N - L I N E V I D E O S

O T H E R T E X T F E A T U R E S

Chapter Opening Vignettes Each chapter begins with a story that

focuses on the connection between chemistry and high-interest, everydaytopics that students can relate to

Objectives Each chapter begins with a

list of goals for the student to achieve.These objectives identify key conceptswithin each chapter A summary of howthese objectives were met appears at theend of each chapter

S U P P O R T

P A C K A G E F O R

S T U D E N T S

Student Web Site Within each chapter you will find an icon a indicating that there

is a ScienCentral news video at the website with a news story related to

chapter content The web site also features practice quizzes and Interactive

Learning-ware problems

Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide Written by Byron Howell, Tyler Junior

College and Adeliza Flores, of Las Positas College, this supplement contains worked

out solutions to the odd-numbered text problems; chapter summaries; sample

prob-lems, and practice problems

Laboratory Manual Written by David Macaulay, Joseph Bauer, and Molly

Bloom-field This lab manual is written for the one or two-term chemistry lab course for

stu-dents in the allied health sciences and related fields These experiments are presented in

an integrated table of contents and contain chapter references from General, Organic,

and Biological Chemistry: An Integrated Approach, Second Edition

Chemistry Case Studies For Allied Health Students Written by Colleen Kelley and

Wendy Weeks This manual was designed to bring relevance and critical thinking skills

to the allied health chemistry course Students are encouraged to become

“diagnosti-cians” and apply their newly-acquired chemistry knowledge to solving real life health

and environmental cases The case manual also encourages a holistic approach by

ask-ing students to synthesize information across topics

Macular degeneration is a disease of the eye with symptoms that include

loss of color vision and distortion, blurring, or complete loss of central vision.

trouble when it comes to reading or recognizing faces There are a number of

advanced age, a history of smoking, and diabetes.

Stargardt’s disease, an inherited form of macular degeneration that usually

appears before age 30, results from damage to the retina caused by a

mal-function in the recycling of an organic molecule essential to the visual process.

92

Photo source:Science VU/NIH/Visual Unlimited.

93

1 Draw molecules and polyatomic ions using electron dot and line-bond structures

Assign formal charges.

2 Describe how condensed structural formulas and skeletal structures differ from

electron dot and line-bond structures.

3 Define electronegativity and explain its relationship to polar covalent bonds Give a

simple rule that can be used to predict whether or not a covalent bond is polar.

4 List the five basic shapes about an atom in a molecule and describe the rules used

to predict shape Explain how shape plays a role in determining overall polarity.

5 Describe the noncovalent interactions that attract one compound to another.

6 Describe the four families of hydrocarbons.

7 Explain the difference between constitutional isomers, conformations, and the

stereoisomers known as geometric isomers Give examples of two different families

of hydrocarbons that can exist as geometric isomers.

8 Define the term functional group and describe the features that distinguish

hydrocarbons, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and esters from one another.

Now that we have seen the basics of how atoms (Chapter 2) and compounds istry topics that we will encounter as we move through the text This chapter will ing patterns, the distribution of electrons, and the shape of a molecule influence the knowledge of these interactions to understand the properties of a number of different and its interactions with others are important in determining its biological effects.

cow disease (Health Link: Prion Diseases) are directly related to these properties.

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

4

AN I N T R O D U C T I O N T O

O R G A N I C C O M P O U N D S

o b j e c t i v e s

WileyPlus Homework Management System WileyPlus is a powerful on-line tool thatprovides a completely integrated suite of teaching and learning resources in one easy-to-use web site WileyPlus integrates Wiley’s world-renowned content with media,including a multimedia version of the text, PowerPoint slides, on-line assessment, and more.

Digital Image Archive The text web site includes downloadable files of text images inJPEG format

Test Bank Written by John Singer, Jackson Community College, the test bankincludes multiple choice, true/false, and short answer questions

Computerized Test Bank The IBM and Macintosh compatible version of the entireTest Bank has full editing features to help the instructor customize tests

Instructor’s Manual Written by Colleen Kelley, Pima Community College, thissupplement provides Chapter Summaries and lecture outlines

Instructor’s Solutions Manual Written by Adeliza Flores, of Las Positas College, thissupplement contains worked-out solutions to all of the end-of-chapter problems

I wish to thank my wife Susan and my son William for their encouragement, support, andpatience.

It is with great appreciation that I acknowledge the important contributions made byJennifer Yee, Catherine Donovan, Suzanne Ingrao, Janet Foxman, Lisa Gee, Hope Miller,Thomas Kulesa, Gabriel Dillon, Amanda Wygal, and all of the others at Wiley who wereinvolved in helping to prepare this second edition

Finally, I wish to acknowledge the important contributions made by the followingreviewers of this text:

This page intentionally left blank

A B O U T T H E

A U T H O R

University in 1975 and a Ph.D in Organic Chemistry from the University ofWashington in 1981 Since joining the faculty of Eastern Washington University

in 1982, his primary teaching responsibilities have been in the general, organic,and biochemistry series for the health sciences and in the upper-division organicchemistry lecture and laboratory series In 1990 he received EWU’s annualaward for excellence in teaching He has been chair of the Department ofChemistry and Biochemistry since 2000 When not grading papers, he playsmandolin and button accordion in a local folk band

The asterisks are color

coded to indicate which

chapters are integrated.

C H A P T E R 1 S C I E N C E A N D M E A S U R E M E N T S 1

HEALTHLink Science and Medicine 4

HEALTHLink Body Mass Index 13

HEALTHLink Body Temperature 16

C H A P T E R 2 A T O M S A N D E L E M E N T S 2 6

HEALTHLink Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) 31

HEALTHLink CT and MRI Imaging 49

C H A P T E R 3 C O M P O U N D S 6 0

B IOCHEMISTRYLink Bioluminescence 70

B IOCHEMISTRYLink Ionophores and Biological Ion Transport 73

HEALTHLink Dental Fillings 80

B IOCHEMISTRYLink Ethylene, a Plant Hormone 84

xix

C O N T E N T S

C H A P T E R 4 A N I N T R O D U C T I O N T O O R G A N I C

C O M P O U N D S 9 2

HEALTHLink Sunscreens 124

B IOCHEMISTRYLink Odor and Flavor 128

C H A P T E R 5 G A S E S, LI Q U I D S, A N D SO L I D S 138

HEALTHLink Blood Pressure 150

HEALTHLink Making Weight 164

HEALTHLink Breathing 166

C H A P T E R 6 R E A C T I O N S 1 7 6

HEALTHLink Antiseptics and Oxidation 187

HEALTHLink Carbonic Anhydrase 201

7.5 Biochemical Compounds 224

HEALTHLink Prodrugs 227

HEALTHLink Saliva 239

HEALTHLink Diffusion and the Kidneys 242

HEALTHLink Trans Fats 265

HEALTHLink Olestra 266

Math Support–Logs and Antilogs 300

B IOCHEMISTRYLink Plants as pH Indicators 301

HEALTHLink A Chili Pepper Painkiller 325

10.5 Oxidation of Phenols 332

HEALTHLink Biofilms 339

B IOCHEMISTRYLink A Cure for Fleas 340

HEALTHLink Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 376

HEALTHLink Protective Enzymes 378

HEALTHLink Drugs in the Environment 382

HEALTHLink Relative Sweetness 415

HEALTHLink Indigestible Oligosaccharides 417

B IOCHEMISTRYLink Collagen and a-Keratin, Two Fibrous Proteins 447

B IOCHEMISTRYLink Hemoglobin, a Globular Protein 448

HEALTHLink Proteins in Medicine 459

C H A P T E R 1 4 N U C L E I C A C I D S 4 6 8

HEALTHLink Viruses 489

HEALTHLink RNA Interference 491

HEALTHLink Brown Fat 527

Appendix A Scientific Calculators A-1

Appendix B Important Families of Organic Compounds A-5

Appendix C Naming Ions, Ionic Compounds, Binary Molecules, and Organic

Compound A-8

Appendix D Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-23

Appendix E Glossary A-51

Index I-1

This page intentionally left blank

G E N E R A L , O R G A N I C , A N D

B I O L O G I C A L C H E M I S T R Y

An Integrated Approach

S E C O N D E D I T I O N

After their first chemistry lecture a group of students walks across campus together One student says, “I want to be a nurse I can see how

we might need to study chemistry, but why does the textbook have to start with

a chapter on math? What does math have to do with the health sciences?” The rest of the group voices their agreement A nursing student walking past the group in the other direction overhears this comment and smiles “They have

no idea how much math they will use,” she thinks to herself.

Photo source:Rick Madonik/Toronto Star/Zuma Press.

1 Explain the terms scientific method, law, theory, hypothesis, and experiment.

2 Define the terms matter and energy Describe the three states of matter and the two

forms of energy.

3 Describe and give examples of physical properties and physical change.

4 Convert from one unit of measurement into another.

5 Express values using scientific notation and metric prefixes.

6 Explain the difference between the terms accurate and precise.

7 Use the correct number of significant figures to report the results of calculations

involving measured quantities.

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

1

M E A S U R E M E N T S

o b j e c t i v e s

In this first chapter of the text we will take a look at science, chemistry,

and mathematics, and will see the important role that each plays in the

health sciences.

2 CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTS

T H E S C I E N T I F I C M E T H O D

1.1

Science is an approach that is used to try to make sense out of how the universe operates,ranging in scale from the very large (understanding how stars form) to the very small (under-standing the behavior of the tiny particles from which everything is made) The knowledgegained from scientific studies has impacted our lives in many positive ways, including ourever-improving ability to treat diseases For example, the medical scanners (including CTand MRI) and many of the therapeutic drugs (including antibiotics and anti-cancer drugs)used today are available as a result of the careful work of scientists (Figure 1.1)

In doing science, the scientific method is the process used to gather and interpret

infor-mation Observation is part of this process One well-known story regarding the importance

of observation involves the English scientist Isaac Newton (1642–1727) Reportedly, seeing

an apple fall out of a tree led him to formulate the law of gravity, which states that there is an attractive force between any two objects (in this case, between the earth and an apple) This and

other scientific laws are statements that describe things that are consistently and reproducibly

observed While a law does not explain why things happen, it can be used to predict what

might happen in the future For example, the law of gravity does not explain why things fall,but it does allow you to predict what will happen if you jump off of a ladder

Explaining observations is a key component of the scientific method The process

begins with the construction of a hypothesis, a tentative explanation (educated guess) that is

based on presently known facts Clinicians, for example, make educated guesses when

treat-ing patients If a patient complains of stomach pains, the clinician will ask a few questionsand make a few observations before coming up with a hypothesis (diagnosis) as to thenature of the problem This hypothesis is based on knowledge of symptoms and diseases.The most important part of the scientific method is what happens once a hypothesis has

been constructed—it must be tested by doing careful experiments To test a hypothesis, a

clinician might call for a series of medical tests (experiments) to be run If the test resultssupport the diagnosis, treatment can begin If they invalidate the diagnosis, the clinicianmust revise the hypothesis and look for another cause of the illness

Experiments must be designed so that the observations made are directly related to thequestion at hand For example, if a patient has stomach pains, taking an x ray of his or herbig toe will probably not help find the cause of the illness

Once a hypothesis has survived repeated testing, it may become a theory—an

experi-mentally tested explanation of an observed behavior For a theory to survive, it must be

con-sistent with existing experimental evidence, must accurately predict the results of futureexperiments, and must explain future observations

Figure 1.2 shows the interconnections of the various parts of the scientific method—making an observation, forming a hypothesis, performing experiments, and creating a the-ory Scientists do not necessarily follow these steps in order, nor do they always use all ofthe steps It may be that an existing law suggests a new experiment or that a set of publishedexperiments suggests a radically new hypothesis Creativity is an important part of science;sometimes new theories arise when someone discovers an entirely new way of interpretingexperimental results that hundreds of others had looked at before, but could not explain Inaddition to creativity, a scientist must have sufficient knowledge of the field to be able tointerpret experimental results and to evaluate hypotheses and experiments

The fact that theories are based on experimental observations means that they times change In Section 2.1 two theories of the atom, the fundamental particle fromwhich matter is created, are discussed One of these theories dates back to the early 1800s,when technology was not very advanced and experiments provided much less informationthan is obtainable today (Figure 1.3) While the earliest theory of the atom accounted forthe observations made up until the early 1800s, once better experimental results wereobtained, errors were revealed

some-Whether scientists study atoms or inherited diseases, theories must be continuallyreevaluated and, if necessary, revised as new experiments provide additional information.This change is an expected part of science

■ Experiments test hypotheses.

Medical imaging

(a) The first x ray of the human

body was taken in 1895 by

Wilhelm Roentgen, the discoverer

of x rays In this x ray, you can see

the bones of his wife’s hand and her

wedding ring (b) With the

improvements that have been made

to x-ray equipment, clinicians can

now obtain sharper and more

detailed images, as in this scan of a

patient’s vertebrae

Source:(a) SPL/Photoresearchers;

(b) Gondelon/Photo Researchers, Inc.

(a)

(b)

1.1 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD 3

Repeated testing

Experiments

Accept hypothesis

Theory

Discard hypothesis

Revise hypothesis

The scientific method

In the scientific method,experiments provide theinformation used to discard,revise, or accept hypotheses

Source:From Biochemistry:

A Foundation 1st edition by Ritter.

© 1996 Reprinted with permission

of Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning:

Source:(a) © Hulton-Deutsch Collection/Corbis; (b) James Holmes/

Thomson Laboratories/Photo Researchers Inc.

Science and Medicine

The level of glucose (blood sugar) in the body is controlled by a hormone called insulin Diabetes is the disease that occurs when insulin is not produced in sufficient amounts or when the body is not sensitive to its effects As

science has progressed over the years, so has our understanding of this disease and our ability to treat

it In the mid 1800s, before it was known that high levels of glucose cause the symptoms of diabetes, some physicians recommended that their diabetic patients eat lots of sugar Others recommended starvation Scientific studies in the late 1800s and early 1900s led to an understanding of the role that the pancreas plays in glucose metabolism and to the discovery of insulin, which is produced by the pancreas Insulin was first used in 1922 to treat diabetes in humans Because the insulin used then was not very pure, patients were

given injections—often painful—of up to 2 tea- spoons (10 milliliters) at a time As the science of iso- lating and purifying insulin improved, dosages dropped

to less than one-tenth of that size Other advances

in the treatment of betes included the use of oral drugs to control insulin levels (introduced

dia-in 1955), the use of ically engineered human insulin (introduced in 1982) in place of that iso- lated from cattle and pigs, and the development of new methods to test blood glucose levels (Figure 1.4).

Glucose testing

It is important for diabetics to monitor their blood glucose levels (a) When these test strips are

dipped in a urine sample, the array of colors produced indicates the amount of glucose present

(b) Blood glucose monitors that require just a small drop of blood are alternatives to test strips.

Source:(a) Saturn Stills/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) Yoav Levy/Phototake.

Now that we have been introduced to some of the basic aspects of science, let us see how

chemistry fits into the picture Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it goes Matter is defined as anything that has mass and occupies space In everyday terms, this

under-definition includes your body, the air that you breathe, this book, and all of the othermaterial around you

We can describe matter in terms of physical properties, those characteristics that can be determined without changing the chemical composition of matter (what it is made of) For

example, a cube of sugar is white, tastes sweet, and is odorless The act of measuring these andother physical properties, including melting point (melting temperature), does not changethe sugar into anything else—it is still sugar

Matter is typically found in one of three different physical states or phases—as a solid,

a liquid, or a gas From our direct experience we know that

• Solids have fixed shapes and volumes.

• Liquids have variable shapes and fixed volumes.

• Gases have variable shapes and volumes.

M A T T E R A N D E N E R G Y

1.2

(a)

(b)

Think about what happens if an opened can of paint gets spilled (Figure 1.5) Whether it is

standing upright or lying on its side, the can (a solid) has the same shape and occupies the

same volume of space The paint (a liquid) keeps its original 1 gallon volume but changes its

shape as it spreads out across the floor The paint fumes (a gas) quickly change their shape

and volume as they spread through the air in the room

Converting matter between each of these states is an example of physical change,

change in which the chemical composition of matter is not altered (Figure 1.6) Crushing

a cube of sugar, boiling water to make steam, and melting an iron rod are examples of

physical change

Any time that matter is changed in any way, work has been done This includes the

phys-ical changes just mentioned, as well as walking, running, or turning the pages of this book All

of these activities involve energy, which is defined as the ability to do work and to transfer heat.

Energy can be found in two forms, as potential energy (stored energy) or as kinetic

energy (the energy of motion) The water sitting behind a dam has potential energy When

the floodgates are opened and the water begins to pour through, potential energy is

converted into kinetic energy

All matter contains energy, so changes in matter (work) and changes in energy

(poten-tial or kinetic) are connected to one another For example, if you drive a car, some of the

potential energy of gasoline is converted into the kinetic energy used to move the pistons

in the engine (doing work) and some is converted into heat, a form of kinetic energy

related to the motion of the particles from which things are made

■ Matter can exist in the solid, liquid, and gas states.

Gas, liquid, and solid

A paint can (a solid), paint(a liquid), and paint fumes (a gas)illustrate the three physical states

of matter

■ Potential energy is stored energy Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

Physical change

When snow melts in the spring,rivers fill with water Theconversion of snow into water is aphysical change

Source:Peter Van Rijn/Superstock.

6 CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTS

Potential versus kinetic energy

Which are mainly examples of potential energy and which are mainly examples ofkinetic energy?

a.A mountain climber sits at the top of a peak

b.A mountain climber rappels down a cliff

c.A hamburger sits on a plate

d.A nurse inflates a blood pressure cuff

Strategy

Recall that potential energy is stored energy and that kinetic energy is the energy ofmotion

Solution

a.Describe changes in the kinetic energy and the potential energy of a barbell when aweightlifter picks it up

b.Describe changes in the kinetic energy and the potential energy of a weightlifter when

a barbell is picked up

Measurements consist of two parts: a number and a unit Saying that you swam for 3

is not very informative—was it 3 minutes, 3 hours, or 3 miles? The number must beaccompanied by a unit, a quantity that is used as a standard of measurement (of time, of

length, of volume, etc.) The metric system is the measurement system used most often worldwide In this text we will use metric units and the common units used in the United States (Table 1.1) Occasionally, SI units (an international system of units related to the

metric system) will be introduced Table 1.2 lists some of the additional units that arecommonly used in medical applications

Mass

Mass is related to the amount of matter in a material—the more matter that it contains,the greater its mass Units commonly used to measure mass are the gram (g), kilogram(kg), and pound (lb) A mass of 454 g is equivalent to 1 lb and 2.205 lb is equivalent to

1 kg (Figure 1.8)

Measuring hand strength

A dynamometer is used to

measure a patient’s hand strength

Source:Keith Brofsky/Photodisc

Green/Getty Images.

1.3 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 7

(a) One kilogram weighs a little more than two pounds (b) One meter (bottom) is slightly longer than one yard (top) (c) One quart is slightly smaller than one liter.

Source:(a), (b) Andy Washnik/Wiley Archive; (c) Michael Dalton/Fundamental Photographs.

1 kg= 1000 g

1 m3= 1000 L

15 drops (gtt)= 1 milliliter (mL)

1 teaspoon (tsp)= 5 milliliters (mL)

1 tablespoon (T or tbsp)= 15 milliliters (mL)

2 tablespoons (T or tbsp)= 1 ounce (oz)

aThe prefixes micro and milli are explained in Section 1.4.

8 CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTS

200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

370 360 350 340 330 320 310 300 290 280 270 260

100

Temperature units

Water freezes and boils at

different temperature values in

the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and

Temperature

The metric system uses the Celsius (°C) scale to measure temperature On this scale, waterfreezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C On the Fahrenheit (°F) scale, still used in the UnitedStates, water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F (Figure 1.9) Besides having differentnumerical values for the freezing and boiling points of water, these two temperature scaleshave degrees of different sizes On the Fahrenheit scale there are 180 degrees between thetemperatures where water boils and freezes (212°F− 32°F = 180°F) On the Celsiusscale, however, there are only 100 degrees over this same range (100°C− 0°C = 100°C).This means that the boiling to freezing range for water has almost twice as manyFahrenheit degrees as Celsius degrees (180/100= 1.8)

Scientists often measure temperature using the SI unit called the kelvin (K) A ature of 0 K, known as absolute zero, is the temperature at which all heat energy has beenremoved from a sample On the Kelvin temperature scale, the difference between thefreezing point (273.15 K) and the boiling point (373.15 K) of water is 100 degrees, thesame as that for the Celsius scale, so a kelvin is the same size as a Celsius degree

temper-Energy

The metric unit for energy, the calorie (cal), is defined as the amount of energy required

to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C The SI energy unit, thejoule (J), which is approximately equal to the energy expended by a human heart eachtime that it beats, is about one-fourth as large as a calorie (1 cal= 4.184 J)

When you hear the word “calorie,” it might bring food to mind One food Calorie(Cal) is equal to 1000 cal, which means that an 80 Cal cookie contains 80,000 cal ofpotential energy

1.4 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND METRIC PREFIXES 9

When making measurements, particularly in the sciences, there are many times when you

must deal with very large or very small numbers For example, a typical red blood cell has

a diameter of about 0.0000075 m In scientific notation (exponential notation) this

diameter is written 7.5× 10−6m Values expressed in scientific notation are written as a

number between 1 and 10 multiplied by a power of ten The superscripted number to the

right of the ten is called an exponent

An exponent with a positive value tells you how many times to multiply a number by 10,

while an exponent with a negative value tells you how many times to divide a number by 10

An easy way to convert a number into scientific notation is to shift the decimal point

For a number that is equal to or greater than 10, shift the decimal point to the left until

you get a number between 1 and 10 The number of spaces that you moved the decimal

place is the new exponent (see Table 1.3)

7.5× 10−6

1 and 10

10 CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTS

For a number less than 1, shift the decimal point to the right until you get a numberbetween 1 and 10 Put a negative sign in front of the number of spaces that you movedthe decimal place and make this the new exponent

Metric Prefixes

Units larger and smaller than the metric units introduced in Section 1.3 can be created

by attaching a prefix that indicates how the new unit relates to the original (see Table1.4) For example, drugs are often administered in milliliter (mL) volumes The prefix

milli indicates that the original unit, in this case the liter, has been multiplied by 10−3

Similarly, distance can be measured in kilometers The prefix kilo indicates that the meter

unit of length has been multiplied by 103

1.5 MEASUREMENTS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 11

Using scientific notation

Convert each number into scientific notation

Strategy

The decimal point is shifted to the left for numbers equal to or greater than 10 and

shifted to the right for numbers less than 1

Solution

a.1.44× 10−2 b.1.44× 102 c.3.632× 101 d.9.8× 10−6

One-millionth of a liter of blood contains about 5 million red blood cells Express this

volume of blood using a metric prefix and this number of cells using scientific notation

M E A S U R E M E N T S A N D

S I G N I F I C A N T F I G U R E S

1.5

We have just examined some of the units used to report the measured properties of a

material In this section we will address three of the important factors to consider when

making measurements: accuracy, precision, and significant figures

Accuracy is related to how close a measured value is to a true value Suppose that a

patient’s temperature is taken twice and values of 98°F and 102°F are obtained If the

patient’s actual temperature is 103°F, the second measurement is more accurate because it

is closer to the true value

Precision is a measure of reproducibility The closer that separate measurements come

to one another, the more precise they are Suppose that a patient’s temperature is taken

three times and values of 98°F, 99°F, and 97°F are obtained Another set of temperature

measurements gives 90°F, 100°F, and 96°F The first three measurements are more in

agreement with one another, so they are more precise than the second set

A set of precise measurements is not necessarily accurate and a set of accurate

measure-ments is not necessarily precise This is illustrated in Figure 1.10, using the game of darts as

an example Figure 1.10a shows the results of three shots that are precise, but not

accurate—the shots fall close together, but they not are centered on the bull’s-eye In Figure

1.10b, the shots are accurate, but not precise, because the shots fall near the bull’s-eye but

not close together Figure 1.10c shows three shots that are both accurate and precise.

■ Precise measurements are grouped together.

■ Accurate measurements fall near the true value.

(a) The darts were thrown precisely (they are all close to one another) but not accurately (b) The darts were thrown

accurately (they fall near the bull’s-eye) but not precisely

12 CHAPTER 1 | SCIENCE AND MEASUREMENTS

Significant Figures

The quality of the equipment used to make a measurement is one factor in obtainingaccurate and precise results For example, balances similar to the one shown in Figure 1.11come in different models A lower priced model might report masses to within ±0.1 g,and a higher priced one to within ±0.001 g

Suppose that the precision of a balance is such that repeated measurements alwaysagree to within ±0.1 g On this balance, a U.S quarter (25 cent coin) might have a

reported mass of 5.6 g This number, 5.6, has two significant figures (those digits in a

measurement that are reproducible when the measurement is repeated, plus the first doubtful digit) Here the “6” in 5.6 is doubtful, because the balance reports mass with an error of

±0.1 g Assuming that the balance is accurate, the actual mass of the quarter may be alittle bit more or a little bit less than 5.6 grams

On a different balance that reports masses with a precision of ±0.001 g, the reportedmass of the same quarter might be 5.563 g Using this measuring device, the mass of thequarter is reported with four significant figures

For the numbers above (5.6 and 5.563), determining significant figures is ward: all of the digits written are significant Things get a bit trickier when zeros areinvolved, because zeros that are part of the measurement are significant, while those thatonly specify the position of the decimal point are not Table 1.5 summarizes the rules fordetermining when a digit is significant

straightfor-It is important to note that significant figures apply only to measurements, becausemeasurements always contain some degree of error Numbers have no error when they are

obtained by an exact count (there are seven patients sitting in the waiting room) or are defined (12 eggs= 1 dozen, 1 km = 1000 m) These exact numbers have an unlimited

number of significant figures

Balances

Top-loading balances give a digital

readout of the mass of an object

Source:BSIP/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Examples Number of Significant Figures Numbers are significant if they are:

Numbers are not significant if they are:

■ T A B L E | 1.5 S I G N I F I C A N T F I G U R E S