(Industrial chemistry library 6) giora agam (eds ) industrial chemicals their characteristics and development academic press, elsevier (1994)

Terms such as the following: In many instances this classification tends to correlate with the degree of the chemical "complexity" of the product which increases from bulk materials to

Advisory Editor: S.T Sie, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Materials Science

Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Volume 1 Progress in C 1 Chemistry in Japan

(Edited by the Research Association for C I Chemistry)

Volume 2 Calcium M a g n e s i u m Acetate A n E m e r g i n g Bulk Chemical for

Environmental Applications

(Edited by D.L Wise, Y.A Levendis and M Metghalchi)

Volume 3 A d v a n c e s in O r g a n o b r o m i n e Chemistry I

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Volume 4 Technology of Corn Wet Milling and Associated Processes

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To my dear parents, YOEL and MANIA, for their confident, everlasting support

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Preface

C h e m i c a l s in t h e Real World

Members of the ACS Academic-Industry Committee realized in the early 1970s that the following request was being made from within the ranks of the chemical industry:

"Send us chemists Not synthetic organic chemists, spectroscopists, theoretical physical chemists, but chemists."

Most industrial chemists will adopt and identify with the idea behind this quotation However, to the academic ear it will sound at best unclear, and at worst an arrogant statement — an attitude expressing

a gap between the two worlds: academic vs industrial chemical re­ search

In our opinion this gap stems from the following differences:

• A difference in "language" and in concepts

• The different aims of the research

It is accepted that the industrial and the academic world speak in different "languages" It is amazing to discover that university gradu­ ates (more in chemistry than in chemical engineering) are often unfami­ liar with subjects so basic to chemical industry, such as specifications, formulations, scaling-up and construction materials Many have never even heard of such concepts as Flash Point or Assay [1]!

Formulations make up the core and majority of chemical products known to us in our daily lives This subject is usually "taught" in the first high school chemistry course, when the teacher says: "There are mixtures and there are pure compounds" And this is the beginning and the end of the study of formulations

The first exposure of a chemistry graduate to our world of indus­ trial chemicals is described by Beichl and Kreiner as a "cultural shock" [2] Clausen and Mattson [3] define the situation as a "widening g u l f between industry and the academy

It can be argued that the universities need not teach these subjects

as they can be acquired in the "real world" — in actual industrial activity However, the fact that many university graduates are not even aware of the existence of an industrial language, makes such an acqui­ sition expensive and lengthy Even an introductory acquaintance with

the subject can, as Szmant [4] claims, "shorten the induction period" required for a chemistry graduate to productively adapt to industry After all, 60-70% of employed chemists work in industry — half of them

in industrial R&D [5]

This is extremely important in the rapidly changing world we live

in How much did we hear of the following concepts just ten years ago

— concepts that changed our world: Perestroyka, 1992, AIDS, TQM, Green?

To better clarify our point, we formulated a sort of a short "quiz" and presented it to many university chemists To avoid embarrassment,

we shall not report the results And here are the questions:

1 How does motor oil 20W50 change its viscosity?

2 What is cyanide doing in table salt? And salt in dynamite?

3 Why do emulsions have to be broken?

4 How is the color of olive oil measured?

5 Would you store concentrated sulfuric acid in an iron con­ tainer?

6 What is scaling-up? And scaling-down?

10 What is the meaning of filter-cake? Slurry? Filter-aid?

11 Why is amphetamine written with a small "a", and Benze­ drine, a name for the same material, written with a capital

"B"?

Let us try to analyze the modus cogitandi and the modus operandi of

two synthetic chemists — in industry and in the university, both having

a research plan for developing a synthetic route to some molecule What is the challenge set before the university chemist?

It is imperative that the synthesis will have an innovative element (an innovative process or a new product) Having succeeded, the researcher has to provide evidence that the product has been obtained This is done

by verifying its structure, mainly by physical spectroscopic methods (MS, IR, UV, NMR, etc.), and often by converting it to other chemical entities the structure of which is easier to prove Frequently the evi­ dence is given even without isolating the product

A good yield is desirable, but not absolutely necessary And after the product is isolated, all the other chemicals get thrown down the drain

The essence of the above research lies in innovation, supported by sound evidence The cost of the experiment is not a factor (as long as there is a research budget)

We believe that the challenges facing the industrial chemist who

is going to develop a synthesis for a product are more difficult [6] — if

only because the number of hurdles en route is greater, and slipping

over one of them is enough to disqualify an entire process: in industry

we have to develop a good synthesis Yield is of the utmost importance But we are good chemists, and let's assume that we have succeeded in obtaining a satisfactory yield

If the synthesis is good, but the isolation

of the product ("work-up") is complex

we still do not have a process

If the isolation is easy, but the process

"runs away" when it is scaled up

we still do not have a process

If the process is successfully scaled up

but the raw materials are unavailable

commercially

we still do not have a process

If we find the raw materials in the

market, but the product does not meet

quality specifications

we still do not have a process

If the quality meets market requirements,

but the process requires expensive

equipment which is not available to us

we still do not have a process

If we possess the necessary equipment,

but we have no solution for treatment

of the wastes

we still do not have a process

If there is a solution for the waste

treatment, but we cannot protect ourselves

against the materials' toxicity

we still do not have a process

If we can control the toxicity, but

the process is already patented

we still do not have a process

If the process is not patented, but

all this already costs us too much

money, the process is not economical,

and the shareholders get nervous

we still do not have a process Richarz [7] summarizes the gap between the academic and industrial approaches as follows:

Scale-up still the key issue

In every research and development effort of a chemical process many

"peripheral aspects" exist which can critically influence the outcome, even if the "chemistry" looks good Raw materials, specifications, stand­ ards, construction materials, safety and toxicology, ecology, patents, equipment, scale-up problems — all of these can reduce the process' attractiveness Unfortunately, many of those employed in research and development (chemists and engineers alike) tend to work within the narrow limits of their own disciplines, leaving problems caused by

"peripheral considerations" to others "down the stream." Those are required to "fix up" the process — a situation which could have been prevented had the R&D personnel considered all these parameters during the development of the process, from its very beginning

Regarding the last point, there is often a deficiency in "coordination

of expectations" between the chemists and the engineers involved in industrial R&D, with responsibilities not clearly defined, especially in terms of "peripheral considerations" For instance, an ecological problem can be solved by an engineer, but may be avoided altogether by the R&D chemist

The aim of this book is to better acquaint the reader with the basic concepts of chemistry and chemicals in "the real world", and with all of those "peripheral" aspects so important for process development and understanding the world of industrial chemicals

We shall deal with subjects that are neither "exactly chemistry", nor "exactly chemical engineering", but which encompass both these disciplines in a broad circumference Thus we have not included in our book subjects covered by those defined disciplines such as chemistry, chemical engineering or economics, but have concentrated on topics outside of these, or on the borderlines between them

We hope that this book will contribute to the awareness of the need for a "comprehensive approach" during the research and development

of industrial chemical products, and will encourage researchers to assume responsibility for all the peripheral parameters throughout the entire R&D process

REFERENCES

[1] K.E Kolb, "Teaching Industrial Chymists", Chemtech, 1983, 397

[2] G.J Beichl and W.A Kriner, "Why Not Prepare Chemistry Majors to Work in Industry?" J Chem Ed., 63, 699 (1986)

[3] C A Clausen III and G Mattson, "Principles of Industrial Chemistry", J Wiley, 1978, p vii

[4] H.H Szmant, "An Industrial Chemistry Course to Bridge the dustry Gap", J Chem E d , 62, 736 (1985)

Academia-In-[5] "Chemistry in the Economy", ACS Study, Washington, 1973

[6] G Nonhebel, "Chemical Engineering in Practice", Wykeham Publ (London),

1973, Chap 11

[7] W Richarz, "Chemical Reaction Engineering — Quo Vadis?", Chimia, 42, 424 (1988)

Chapter 1

Naming Chemicals

Father calls me William, Sister calls me Will Mother calls me Willie, But the fellers call me Bill!

The following example is a certain widely used material: in indus­ try — for textile dyeing, fertilizing plants with essential micro-nutri­ ents, and for metal cleaning; in medicine — as an anticoagulant and an antidote against metal poisoning; in the laboratory — as a chelating agent for volumetric analysis

Knowing the formula of the material

HOOC-CH ^ C ^ - C O O N a

, NCH 2 CH 2 Ν

N a O O C - C H ^ ^ CHj-COOH

we refer to Chemical Abstracts to look for its name There we shall find

scientific information abstracts regarding this product, under the name:

• A^iV'-l^-EthanediylbisfN-Ccarboxymethyl) glycine] disodium salt

If, indeed, we want to buy this material, we would now turn to common commercial product lists, catalogs, and company publications,

and look for it under the above name The result would be frustrating:

we would not be able to find it Either the product does not exist commercially or it has another name

We would have a much better chance under the common name (which we probably remember from school days):

• Ethylenediamine Tetra Acetic acid, disodium salt

or an even more common and well-known name amongst the chemists:

• EDTA disodium salt

The very same material is used in medicine, and the pharmacists have another name for it Indeed, it can be found in the pharmaceutical

standards compendium "The British Pharmacopoeia 99 under the name:

• Disodium Edetate

And on top of it all, manufacturers of textiles, metal cleaners, and other users will often not know which material is being referred to unless we use trade names such as:

• Versene (Dow's tradename) or Trilon Β (BASF's tradename) This is how the users know the material This is how it is sold and purchased

As a central factor in worldwide chemical literature, Chemical

Abstracts plays a major role in determining the chemical name of a

product The Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) generally determines the names in accordance with the principles advocated by IUPAC (International Union of Pure & Applied Chemistry) and IUB (Interna­ tional Union of Biochemistry)

At the same time, besides the Chemical Abstracts Index Names

there is an additional system determined by IUPAC and WHO (World Health Organization) In this system non-systematic (trivial) names are used

The particular nomenclature rules as prescribed by Chemical

Abstracts or IUPAC will not be discussed here Those who are inter­

ested are referred to books dealing with this subject [1]

We shall discuss, however, the parallel systems for names and synonyms which are used in everyday life — in commerce, industry, agriculture, medicine, etc In some cases the situation resembles that

of our friend Bill: the material will have a formal systematic name as well as other names which are more user-friendly

Moreover, in "real life" there are even instances in which the

systematic nomenclature of Chemical Abstracts will not be applicable,

and we are forced to use other names for chemicals

R.D Bagnall, preaching for the easy-to-use trivial name tells the story [2] of the chemist who used to prepare for his own experi­ ments bottles of diethyl ether dried by sodium wire The ether kept disappearing by a mysterious hand At last the problem was solved when the chemist marked his bottle as 3-oxapen- tane Simply, no one knew what it was

We thus use common names, or tradenames — any name that can be used easily and fluently for daily communication — even at the expense

of being non-systematic Naturally, IUPAC or CAS names cannot be used when the product is a natural mixture or formulation (see Chapter 3), i.e a handmade mixture of chemical compounds Kerosene, milk, wax-emulsion and paint are just a few examples But even when a simple molecule is discussed, it may frequently be impractical to use the systematic names It is clear that doctors and patients will be reluctant

to do so But as Entschel remarks, it is the case also in less critical situations [3] Discussing the dyes industry, he gives the example of a reactive brown (Figure 1.1), and describes its name as a "verbal tape­ worm", obviously difficult to understand

F i g u r e 1.1 CAS name of a reactive brown [3]

Not only do more professionals like the buyer and seller have to use the name, but also the people at the accounting or transportation offices, etc Mistakes and confusion are very probable and this might be

a serious problem from the safety point of view (see Chapter 11), when the physician, first-aid man or fireman must refer to the specific com­ pound An example was given of a highway accident near Basel, Swit­ zerland in 1985, where the press reported rather simple chemical names so garbled that not even chemists could understand them No wonder that official safety organizations are concerned about this issue

In the field of dyes and pigments, the Ecological and Toxicological Association of the Dyestuff Manufacturing Association proposed that Color Index generic names should be used, rather than systematic IUPAC or CAS nomenclature

Various useful mixtures (specialties), plastic materials, pigments, insecticides, drugs — all bear tradenames

But even basic materials are often called by tradenames (e.g

"Tronacarb" is the tradename Kerr-McGee Corp gave to sodium bicar­ bonate)

Aspirin is Bayer's tradename for 2-(acetyloxy) benzoic acid Valium

is Hoffman-La Roche's tradename for diazepam (the generic name —

common name), while according to Chemical Abstracts nomenclature, this

material is called: diazepin-2-one

7-chloro-l,3-dihydro-l-methyl-5-phenyl-2H-l,4-benzo-"Round-Up" is the name given by Monsanto to its product, a

well-known herbicide, while according to Chemical Abstracts the mate­

rial is called iV-(phosphonomethyl)glycine By another common name (generic, and therefore permissible for all uses), it is called glyphosate

In the case of Nylon, the consumer public was so greatly influ­ enced, that many polymers (even polyethylene) are often mistakenly called nylon, even if they are not polyamides

J.L Meikle and S.M Spivak [4] tell the story of the invention of the name Nylon by DuPont which, according to them, was chosen

in 1937 out of some 400 possibilities! They deny the rumor that the name is derived from the initials of "New York and London" (mistakenly thought to be where the material was invented) Other rumors referred to the challenges which crudely called upon the silk industry to show its ability to compete The real story begins with "Nuron" (with the same letters, in the oppo­ site direction to "no run"), but because of its similarity to other tradenames, it was changed into "Nulon", which was also found

to be similar to other names and was therefore changed to

"Nilon", and finally changed again to Nylon

This name is considered so enormously successful, and is thought to have contributed so greatly to the popularity of the product, that the manufacturer proudly stated: "DuPont cre­

ated a household word"

The story of Nylon clarifies what brings companies to invent trade­ names in addition to the existing systematic, trivial and common names

by which the chemicals are known Not surprisingly, the consideration

is purely commercial, wherein the manufacturer wants the consumer

to identify the product with its producer as a means of promoting sales

In addition to the advertising value, there is another aspect: assume that we succeeded in selling our product under its tradename

to a non-professional market For example, a biocide sold to a metal cutting workshop to prevent bacterial decomposition of the cutting fluid which is used to lubricate the processed parts Once we have "pene­ trated" the market it becomes very difficult for our competitor to enter and push us out In many instances, the workshop owner does not know chemistry and is not interested in knowing the chemical identification

of the material He knows that the material does what it is meant to do and that's it If the material had been called by its chemical name, every competitor who came along would have been able to sell the material because it would have been clear that he was selling exactly the same chemical However, it is very difficult to persuade the same workshop owner that this is an identical material, and he is often not interested

in listening

Formulations which are composed of mixtures of chemicals (see Chapter 3) are naturally given tradenames both because it is impossi­ ble to call a mixture by a chemical name, and because the mixture is unique to a particular producer and changes from manufacturer to manufacturer The tradename allows the manufacturer to conceal the real composition, thus protecting commercial secrecy This applies to household chemicals (such as shoe polish, washing powder, sunscreen lotion, etc.), but it is also true of industrial products

It is clear then that formulations having complex and complicated compositions will be given tradenames However, when referring to basic chemicals which are easily described in chemical terms, surely it

is unnecessary to call them by tradenames as well? In other words,

while a producer's formula for washing detergent remains exclusive (and even protected by patent), the solvent 1,1,1-trichloroethane that one sells is very similar to the solvent which is sold by others What is the reason and rationale — if any — behind calling it by a "private" name? (Dow, for instance, sells this solvent under the name of Chlorothene.) The truth is that tradenames are frequently given to simple materials, par­ ticularly those sold to non-chemical industries, and especially to small ones In this way the consumer is told by the producer, "I'm not selling you just any material off the shelf I understand your needs and I am selling you that material which exactly suits those needs I will also provide you with service and professional consultation, should any

problem arise All this, provided that you buy my material, and not that

of my competitor." This was probably the reasoning which prompted Stauffer Chemicals to sell sodium ortho-silicate under the name of

"Dryorth", or BASF to sell EDTA under the name of "Trilon B"

Surface-active materials, for example, are usually sold under trade­ names, and of course one can find the same material being sold by many manufacturers under different tradenames And if BASF — which did not discover EDTA — is allowed to call this material by a tradename, it

is certainly permissible for Bayer to call aspirin "Aspirin", and for Hoffmann-La Roche to call valium "Valium" Due to their immense popularity, these tradenames, along with Teflon and Nylon, have re­ placed the chemical names

Major fields in which new materials are commonly given trade­ names are pharmaceuticals, insecticides, polymers and pigments WHAT IS THE FORMULA BEHIND THE TRADENAME?

Coming across a tradename, we might be interested in identifying the material chemically: perhaps we shall want to go to other suppliers for the same product, or perhaps we shall want to better understand what

we are dealing with

How can we do this?

It should be realized that the growing sensitivity towards safety and ecological issues is greatly pressurizing the manufacturers: pre­ viously they maintained confidentiality regarding the identity of their products, whereas nowadays they are required to publicize most of the relevant information Therefore, if we ask the manufacturer for the technical data sheet of the product marketed under his tradename, we stand a good chance of discovering the product's chemical identity Thus, in Ciba Geigy's technical brochure (issued in 1986) [5], referring to a light stabilizer which bears the tradename Chimassorb

944 LD, the exact chemical structure can be found:

Ν η

Η Η tert octyl Poly-ito-tllJ^-tetramethylbutyll-imino]-!^^-

6,6-tetramethylpiperidyl)- piperidyl)-imino]}

imino]-hexamethylene-[4-(2,2,6,o-tetramethyl-Another means of identifying a tradename is to use directories — commercial compendiums which compile names and addresses of chemical suppliers (see Chapter 13)

Generally, the directories refer to chemical names which are not tradenames, but some of them do provide sections dedicated to trade­

names As an example, in the 1993 edition of Chemical Week Buyers'

Guide [6], some 8,000 tradenames can be found, mostly for the Ameri­

can market A list of about 2,600 tradenames, aimed at the European

market, can be found in the European Chemical Buyers' Guide 198112 [7] The well-known reference book, The Merck Index also contains

• "SOCMA Handbook — Commercial Organic Chemical Names" [9]

• J Pearce (ed.), "Gardner's Chemical Synonyms and Trade Names"

[10]

• H.D Junge (ed.), "Parat Index of Polymer Trade Names" includes

24,000 names of raw materials and products of the polymer indus­ try [11]

• APhA Drug Names — is the compendium of the American Phar­

maceutical Association, which details over 1,500 drugs by their tradenames (mostly for the American market) For instance, under

"Acetaminophen", 85 tradenames appear (with an additional 154 entries for other products containing acetaminophen) [12]

• "The Agrochemicals Handbook" lists tradenames in the

agro-chemical field [13]

In addition, Chemical Abstracts refers to tradenames, providing they

appear in scientific publications In such cases the materials can be found in the Index Guide

NAMES AND ALTERNATIVE NAMES OF PHARMACEUTICALS

It is commonly known that drugs are not named for "everyday" use

according to the nomenclature of Chemical Abstracts Pharmacists,

doctors, patients, lawyers and others — all are in need of user-friendly names of drugs

A pharmaceutical may have several names during its life cycle In the developmental stages of a drug, a code designation is given to the molecule by the developing company This designation is composed of

letters (the initials of the chemist, code of the group of researchers, or the code of the company, etc.), followed by a serial number Take, for example, EXP-126, the code given by DuPont to Rimantadine, a drug developed by the company

CB 3

The letters EXP code DuPont's experimental drugs come used the code letters BW, and the FMC Corp uses FMC A list of codes representing materials of many companies, can be found in the

Burroughs-Well-Merck Index [14] The next stage of naming is when the drug is first

submitted for approval The developer must then give it a name Occa­ sionally, there is a tendency to give a name that will "hint" at the drug's use, as can be seen in examples such as Anesthesin or Alkagel While the American authorities forbid this practice, considering it to be unfair competition, it is still common practice in Europe Nowadays, the naming of a product is not left in the hands of the chemist It requires multiple expertise and creativity, involving marketing experts, public relations professionals, psychologists, and others

Generally, the name given is proprietary — tradename, brand name This commercial name is a trademark which provides legal protection However, the American manufacturer is also required to submit an additional alternative name to the Council of the American Medical Association Once approved, this name is published in the

Association's publication, "New and Non-Official Remedies" (NNR),

allowing all drug manufacturers or suppliers to use it This is the generic name It is required that the generic name appears on the package of the pharmaceutical preparation alongside the tradename l-Phenyl-2-aminopropane

CHz CHCH 3

NHj

was approved as a stimulant for the central nervous system, under the tradename Benzedrine Its generic name, according to the NNR (which appeared at a later stage), is amphetamine This name is used by other manufacturers who do not have the right to use the tradename Benze­ drine

It is usually possible to distinguish between a tradename and a generic name, since the first letter in a tradename is capitalized But exceptions are not uncommon, and we occasionally find aspirin instead of Aspirin

The vast number of tradenames may cause confusion and difficulty The drug sulfanilamide, for example, has no less than 60 tradenames! Physicians tend to use tradenames in their prescriptions rather

than generic names In such a case, only the specified brand

may be used

A tragic consequence of such confusion occurred in the case of thalidomide — that unfortunate drug which caused so

many birth deformities

Newspapers have reported that Contergen (a German trade­

name for thalidomide) is hazardous But Swedish doctors used

thalidomide under the Swedish tradename, Neurosedyn, and

did not identify the danger

In 1961, a combined effort towards conformity amongst the various bodies was undertaken by three American organizations:

(1) The American Medical Association

(2) The U.S Pharmacopeial Convention (publishers of the

United States Pharmacopeia — USP)

(3) The American Pharmaceutical Association (publishers of the

of names was published: "The United States Adopted Names" (USAN)

The directory includes 12,000 entries and is updated regularly [16] A

parallel international directory, International Nonproprietary Names

(INN), is published as a recommendation by the World Health Organi­ zation (WHO)

THE COLOR INDEX

A unique compendium of products from a completely different field is

listed in the five volumes of The Color Index It is jointly published by

The Society of Dyers and Colourists (UK) and the American Association

of Textile Chemists and Colorists In 1971, the third (latest) edition was published [17]

This index details all the coloring materials (dyes, pigments) that are manufactured The latest edition comprises 38,000 coloring materi­ als which are based on some 8,000 chemical structures; this includes approximately 600 pigments with the rest being dyes [18] The materi­ als are classified by their use, their chemical characteristics, and in each group by color This index also records the chemical structure (if known), methods of application, color characteristics (e.g resistance to fading), tradenames, etc

The reason for discussing The Color Index here is that it uses a

special system of "naming" or identifying dyes and pigments

Every coloring material is assigned two identity numbers: the first refers to the method of dyeing, while the second is the identity number

of the specific molecule

The five-digit identity number is assigned to the coloring material regardless of its use Thus if the material can be applied in several ways, it is represented by only one five-digit number, but with several names which represent its multi-faceted use

Let's consider the example of the pigment whose trivial name is Copper Phthalocyanine and whose formula is:

According to Chemical Abstracts, the material will be called:

[29H,31H-phthalocyanato(2-)-N29,N30,N31,N32] copper

Its two "names" in the Color Index are:

• C.I Pigment Blue (indicating its method of application)

• C.I 74160 (indicating its identity number)

Despite this, we are certain that many consumers of this pigment (in textile, plastics, ink, paint industries) do not know that they use Phtha­ locyanine Blue, just as Jourdain was unaware that he spoke in prose all

his life: "Par ma foil il y a plus de quarante ans que je dis de la prose

sans que j'en süsse rien" [Moliere, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (1970), II,

iv] These consumers usually know this material by its various

trade-names — Cyanine Lutetia, Vynamon Blue, Blue Irgalite, Monastral Fast Blue, to cite but a few

FOOD, DRUG AND COSMETIC (FD&C) COLORS

The public commotion and debate in 1976 regarding the banning of the food color "Red Number 2" is well remembered The food industry then considered itself lucky as it was still possible to replace this hazardous product with other food colors ("Red Number 3" or "Red Number 4") These "names" are used for coloring materials but are clearly not Color Index nomenclature Indeed, separate systems exist for those colorants to which we are highly exposed — in food, drugs and cosmet­ ics This list is the outcome of a 1938 American regulation, the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, wherein the relevant colorants are divided into three categories:

(1) FD&C Colorants — materials which are permitted for use in food, drugs and cosmetic preparations

(2) D&C Colorants — permitted for drugs and cosmetics, exclud­ ing food

(3) External D&C Colorants — only for external use in drugs and cosmetics

The materials classified as FD&C and D&C colors are given identity numbers [19, 20]

And if after all this we take a look at erythrosine, for example, we shall discover that it is a "multinamed creature":

Erythrosine

2 / ,4 / ,5 , ,7 / - tetraiodofluorescein disodium salt 3',6'- Dihydroxy-2 / ,4 , ,5 / ,7-tetraiodo-spiro [isobenzo- furan-l(3H),9M9H]xanthen]-3-one disodium salt Erythrosine B; Erythrosine BS

REFERENCES

[ 1] R.S Cahn and O.C Dermer, "Introduction to Chemical Nomenclature", 5th ed., Butterworth, 1979

[ 2] R.D Bagnall, "What's in a Name?", Chem Brit., Jan 1992, p 46

[ 3] R Entschel, "The Importance of Confidentiality for the Colorant Industry", Chimia, 40, 269 (1986)

[ 4] J.L Meikle and S.M Spivak, "What's in a Name?", Chemtech, 1990, 204 [ 5] "Chimassorb 944 LD", Ciba Geigy Publ No 28 264/edf, 1986

[ 6] "1993 Chemical Week Buyer's Guide", Chemical Week Assoc., 1992

[ 7] "European Chemical Buyers' Guide 198172", IPC Industrial Press, 1982 [ 8] S Budavary (Ed.), "The Merck Index", 11th e d , Merck & Co, 1989

[ 9] "SOCMA Handbook — Commercial Organic Chemical Names", American Chemical Society, 1966

[10] J Pearce (Ed.), "Gardner's Chemical Synonyms and Trade Names", 9th e d , Gower Technical Press, 1987

[11] H.-D Junge (Ed.), "Parat Index of Polymer Trade Names", VCH Publ, 1987 [12] L.L Corrigan and J.D Shoff (Eds), "APhA Drug Names", American Pharma­ ceutical Association, 1979

[13] D Hartley and H Kidds (Eds.), "The Agrochemicals Handbook," 2nd e d The Royal Chemical Society, 1987

[14] Reference 8, p misc 5

[15] The United States Pharmacopeia XXI, U.S Pharmacopeial Convention, 1974 [16] "USAN and the USP Dictionary of Drug Names", U.S Pharmacopeial Conven­ tion, 1978

[17] "Color Index", 3rd e d Society of Dyers and Colourists, 1971

[18] F.W Billmeyer, J r , and M Saltzman, "Principles of Color Technology", 2nd

e d , J Wiley, 1981

[19] S Zuckerman and J Senackerib, "Colorants for Foods, Drugs and Cosmetics"

in "Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology", 3rd e d Vol 6, J Wiley, 1979, p 561

[20] D.L Pavia, G.M Lampman and G.S Kriz, "Introduction to Organic Labora­ tory Techniques", Saunders College Publ, 1988, p 269

Chapter 2

Classifications of Chemicals

Order is a lovely thing;

On disarray it lays its wing, Teaching simplicity to sing

"The Monk in the Kitchen" Anna Hempstead Branch CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICALS — WHAT FOR?

In 1990, the Chemical Abstracts Service registered the 10 millionth compound in its registry system (It was cis-(+)-4,6,7,8,8a,8b-hexahy- dro-6,6,8b-trimethyl-3H-naphtho[l,8-bc]furan) About one percent of these, a hundred thousand chemicals, are on the marketplace [1] These chemicals have approximately 350,000 common names How are they listed? How are they categorized? Such a population needs order We shall try and make some

The obvious way of listing chemicals, a way accepted by researchers,

is alphabetically by the name of the chemical, without any classification But what name? And how does one deal with those materials

having very complex names? Then again, should Chemical Abstracts'

names be used? Or generic names? Or common names? And how is it possible to classify materials that are not pure, like washing powder? And materials that are better known by their tradenames (e.g Teflon)? Such an alphabetical list will not include all possible materials, and is necessarily limited

Grouping chemicals in the "real world" is difficult: the boundaries are unclear, there is much room for overlapping and duplication, and different parameters are needed for classification The question is, of course, what purpose does the classification serve? Different types of chemicals mean different types of businesses The differences cross the lines of all activities dealing with chemicals: technological, marketing, management and financial characteristics vary widely from one group of chemicals to another

These differences may be very great Due to such "incompatibil­ ity", the Union Carbide Corp was split in 1992, and the industrial gases business has been spun off the other chemical businesses We would also like to consider the point of view of the user who looks for a chemical, when this user may be positioned anywhere along the line starting with research and ending with application

Accordingly, we shall discuss the major types of classifications beginning with the chemically-based mode and ending with the com­ mercially-based mode: (i) organic/inorganic chemical listing, (ii) classi­ fication by price and (iii) classification by application

If we examine a specific chemical within each of the three lists, we find that different types of information are hidden behind the name (Table 2.1) We shall discuss all these modes of classification in detail

T A B L E 2.1 INFORMATION IMPLIED BY T H E V A R I O U S C L A S S I F I C A T I O N

M E T H O D S F O R C H E M I C A L S

Information Type of Classification

Organic/inorganic Listing by Listing by listing price Application Chemical identity and +++ + + structure

Price +++

Volume in market ++

-Practical use - - +++ Nature of production - ++ + equipment

LISTING BY CHEMICAL NATURE — ORGANIC/INORGANIC CHEMICALS From the chemical point of view this is, of course, an entirely clear definition Nevertheless, for daily use we often find it necessary to deviate from this framework Polymers, for instance, are frequently presented as a separate group, as are industrial gases Products which are mixtures (i.e toothpaste, paint, etc.) cannot be included in such a classification as they contain both organic and inorganic materials The inorganic group of materials found in commercial catalogs may, on the one hand, include low priced mineral products such as potash, and expensive chemicals for electronic use in semiconductors such as gallium arsenide on the other Similarly, in the organic group

one can find the inexpensive ethylene alongside the highly priced atenolol (a beta-blocker drug)

This method of classifying is used by the customs authorities for listing chemicals In the customs classification, until recently known as the Bruxelles Tariff Number system (BTN) and lately as the Harmo­ nized System (HS), Section 28 is dedicated to inorganic chemicals, whereas Section 29 deals with organic materials The groups are deter­ mined by the product's chemical nature For example, the group 29.21 deals with the "compounds possessing amino group" Subgroup 1000 of this group (i.e 29.21.1000) represents acyclic monoamines, their salts and their derivatives This group includes in particular methylamine, di­ methyl and trimethylamine, and diethylamine All the other acyclic amines are not specified here, but are grouped together under Section

"29.21-1990/6 —Others"

When the molecule contains two different functional groups, the decision regarding the correct customs section for that material be­ comes more complicated p-Chloroaniline can, for example, be placed in Section "29.03.6900 — Halogen derivatives of aromatic hydrocarbons — Others" or in Section "29.21.4290 — Compounds having amino functional group — Aromatic monoamines and their derivatives — Aniline and its Salts — Others."

It is worth noting that organic and inorganic chemicals are in­ cluded in two chapters However, the customs' classification for chemi­ cal materials includes 14 additional chapters (!) — mostly dedicated to formulations (functional mixtures of materials) Among the other chap­ ters we find:

• Pharmaceutical products

• Fertilizers

• Tannin and its derivatives; coloring materials; ink

• Oil extracts; cosmetics

• Soap; organic surfactants; lubricants

• Albumins; starches; adhesives; enzymes

• Explosives; pyrotechnical products; matches

• Photographic or cinematographic goods

• Miscellaneous chemical products

CLASSIFICATION BY PRICE

Classification of chemicals by price is an effective method It involves a

certain paradox, however We classify chemical products and then claim that chemical classification is awkward, and that economic clas­

sification based on price, might be more useful

The justification for this is twofold: firstly, the purpose of the sorting and classifying is to allow the manufacturers and the consumers

to deal with those materials which they need — clearly an economical aspect Secondly, it will be shown that prices of chemicals also indicate chemical and technological characteristics in addition to the marketing and economic aspects

Here too (as was the former case) it is easier to suggest the basis for definition, then to carry out the actual listing We find that terms which are commonly used to define subgroups are vague, overlapping and confusing Terms such as the following:

In many instances this classification tends to correlate with the degree of the chemical "complexity" of the product which increases from bulk materials to fine chemicals: high complexity is expressed by the increasing number of production stages, as well as by the greater number of atoms in the molecule (except for polymers, of course)

We chose somewhat arbitrarily the following sub-division:

(1) Bulk chemicals or commodities — characterized by large quantities and relatively low prices (up to $l/kg)

(2) Intermediates/specialties — average quantities, with a price range from $1 to $50/kg

(3) Fine chemicals — small quantities ranging in price from $50

to $l,000/kg

Before attempting to develop this approach, the question of stabil­ ity or instability of the prices in the chemical marketplace must be addressed The common market forces play their usual role The en­ trance of new producers, from developing countries for example, pushes prices down Such is also the case when governmental subsidization of production enables the reduction of prices As a result, old, inefficient,

large plants are shut down Customers try to avoid shortages by build­ ing up inventories, and prices rise

These cyclic price fluctuations are common in the field of chemical commodities Sodium cyanide is used extensively for extracting gold from ore During the 1970s and early 1980s, the price of sodium cyanide was $1.00-$1.20/kg For various reasons, the demand for gold has increased, and a shortage of cyanide was felt Prices of sodium cyanide have doubled Most of the major cyanide producers responded by in­ creasing production capacity, and towards the end of the 1980s, prices started to decrease

On a long-term basis prices have risen during these last decades But allowing for monetary devaluation, they seem to be quite steady For example, ethylene glycol was sold during the 1950s at $0.30/kg, and

in 1992 — at $0.50/kg

Commodities prices, as will be described later, are quite sensitive

to political changes, which often affect prices of oil and minerals (The oil crisis in 1973, the Iranian revolution in 1979, the Gulf War in 1991, etc.)

A considerable reduction of prices of more complex molecule chemicals occurs, for instance, when a patent expires and the product ceases to be proprietary and becomes generic

Nevertheless, despite all these changes, the above classification of commodities, intermediates/specialties and fine chemicals remains valid

Bulk Chemicals

Bulk chemicals, commodities, basic chemicals, industrial chemicals — are all different titles for the same group of chemicals They are basic materials, relatively simple in terms of their chemical structure, i.e., one-step chemical processing is generally required to produce them from their natural sources They are consumed in very large quantities, their price is relatively low (up to $l/kg, according to our definition), and their degree of purity is usually "technical"

Minerals are our primary source of chemicals The commodities generally result from the first stage of chemical conversion performed

on the natural sources: Inorganic materials are derived from minerals, organic materials from petroleum and coal For example, phosphate is derived from phosphate rock, and methanol from petroleum fraction The number of the basic materials that are classified as commodi­ ties can be counted in tens or hundreds! This number is surprisingly low when we consider the ten million known chemicals and even the 115,000 different chemicals sold in the United States

A few examples are:

from sea water

The quantities by which such commodities are sold are demon­ strated by the following two examples of consumption in the United States (1986):

Production plants for bulk chemicals are located generally close to the natural sources They are characterized as follows:

• Large plants

• Plants are dedicated to the process; shifting from product to prod­ uct is not possible

• The process is generally continuous and not in batches

• The energy required for production is high

• High dependence on complex conveying and transportation

sys-In the production of these chemicals there is an advantage to the large size Small production plants are not economically feasible Examples

of the typical capital investment required for the production of com­ modities are cited in Table 2.2

From the marketing point of view, the ability to maintain a market segment depends first and foremost on the price of the product In addition, the political and economic atmosphere in the marketplace has

a certain influence These factors, and others, frequently cause price fluctuation We often hear, for example, that a factory producing phos­ phates "suffered a loss due to lower phosphate prices in the world market"

— as though from an "omnipotent power" On the other hand, sales are usually made to a limited clientele, and in large quantities; therefore, sales costs are relatively low

terns

T A B L E 2.2 E X A M P L E S F O R CAPITAL I N V E S T M E N T F O R PLANTS

P R O D U C I N G C O M M O D I T I E S

The life cycle of commodities is generally high — decades, if not longer Data for production costs of phenol, as quoted by Jones [2] illustrates certain characteristics of commodities production (Table 2.3)

Points worth emphasizing are:

• The energy factor is about 20% of total costs (In the production of chlorine, the energy cost represents more than 50% of the cost of production.)

• The transportation factor is about 13% of total costs

• Labor costs are very low (approximately 0.5%)

• Marketing costs (except transportation) are low (about 5%)

• Increasing the plant's capacity from 20,000 to 80,000 tons per year decreases costs significantly — by 7%

Specialties: Composition and Performance Chemicals

This group of chemicals includes mainly organic materials of medium complexity, whose prices ranges from $1 to $50/kg It is a very complex, multi-product group To try and make some order within this class, we must introduce a subdivision which is classification by use The purpose

of all this becomes clearer after discussing the class of commodities: If

we know to which group an industrial chemical belongs — it tells us a lot about its chemical nature, production equipment and scale, role in the marketplace, price range, use, etc

T A B L E 2 3 P R O D U C T I O N C O S T S O F P H E N O L [2]

Production capacity 20,000 tons/year 80,000 tons/year

Cost/ton %of Cost/ton %of

A closer look at the nature of the market reveals that a certain material

of defined chemical structure can be used by different industries For example, phenol can be used for disinfectants, or as a major raw

material for resins and adhesives Ethylene glycol is used for polymeri­ zation process as well as an anti-freeze agent in car cooling systems On the other hand, when a particular industrial requirement is defined (say, cleaning milk lines in a dairy), many materials may be used, probably very different from one another in terms of their chemical structure and consequently in their production processes

There are materials geared for highly specific single use (as spe­ cific as, for example, the control of certain tapeworms in dogs) On the other hand, there are materials which are multi-functional (e.g certain antioxidants are broadly used in plastics, rubber, food, and cosmetics)

At this point we might already feel somewhat confused Will it be

of any consolation to know that we share this feeling with experts and specialists? Throughout this chapter we are searching for clear defini­ tions — but these simply do not exist A few excerpts from the profes­ sional literature illustrates this:

• European Chemical News wrote on 24 October 1983 [3]:

"In any discussion of smaller volume chemicals, it is important to define some terms Specialties is a description which is used to cover a wide variety of products and means different things to different people One of the difficulties with establishing defini­ tions and having tidy categories (like true commodities, fine chemicals and specialties) is that products can move from one category to another during their life cycle."

• Chemical Business wrote in April 1987 [4]:

"The fuzzy line that divides speciality from commodity chemicals

is becoming downright dim To survive in this difficult environ­ ment, successful firms are blurring the traditional definition of speciality chemicals."

• A survey of the Stanford Research Institute on the subject of

"Specialty Chemicals — Strategy for Success" establishes with regard to specialty chemicals [5]: " there is very little agreement

as to which chemicals fall into this category Often, specialty chemicals are defined as any chemicals produced in small volume, such as flavors and fragrances, fine chemicals or pharmaceutical intermediates Alternatively, they are defined as chemical prod­ ucts sold in small packages, often at relatively high prices for industrial or consumer use Neither of these definitions is precise

or broadly acceptable."

• In the periodical Specialty Chemicals (1984), we found [6]:

"What are we talking about? The term 'specialty chemicals' tends

to be used in a fairly loose manner and can mean different things

to different people."

Figure 2.1 Classification of commercial chemicals

The specialties for industrial use can either be composition chemi­ cals or performance chemicals There are three types of manufacturers

of specialties for industrial use:

• There are companies specializing in chemical technology and mar­ keting the products of this technology, e.g phosgenation products, catalytic hydrogenation products, etc The target markets of the various products of these companies encompass various indus­ tries While the manufacturer enjoys a technological advantage,

he suffers from a marketing deficiency The products of this group

of manufacturers are usually composition chemicals

• Other companies possess expertise in the production of materials having a particular functional role, to be incorporated in formula­ tions that serve various industries These are the multi-purpose specialties or functional chemicals Antioxidants, surface active agents, and flame retardants fall into this category Since bulk medicinals are raw materials for pharmaceutical production, they

The first distinction to be made is between performance chemicals and

composition chemicals We buy the former because of what they do, and

the latter because of what they are

Another parameter for distinction is the type of user: industry or consumer end-products Figure 2.1 illustrates the classification

can, for the most part, be grouped in the category under discussion,

and the rest as fine chemicals

• The third group comprises companies which specialize in all these

products serving a particular market (end-use specialties, e.g food

additives, textile chemicals, water treatment chemicals, etc.) The

most important know-how here is full acquaintance with the

application field; a highly experienced technical consultancy and

service backup is of primary importance

Not so long ago, eighty years to be exact, the situation in the

textile industry in Great Britain was described as foUows:

" litmus and Congo-Red papers and common-sense were

just about the only auxiliaries available in the dyehouse" [7]

Some sixty years later, the Canadian Textile Journal Pub­

lishing Company issued its "1970 Textile Manual" in which 2,700

textile chemical auxiliaries were listed [8]

In the SRI International study on specialty chemicals, Cox presents a

set of tables [9] which assist us in understanding this market

Table 2.4 details a list of specialties, mostly for industrial use,

including end-use chemicals and multipurpose chemicals Table 2.5 de­

scribes the distribution of the multipurpose chemicals between the major

end-use chemicals

Performance Chemicals

Most of the materials in this group are mixtures (formulations) of

commodities and of various composition chemicals The mixtures are

designated for a particular function, with each of the ingredients of the

composition chemicals type adding to the product's overall performance

For example, car motor oil (a performance chemical) contain:

• Mineral oil (the basic lubricating material) (commodity)

• Antioxidant (specialty)

• Corrosion inhibitor (specialty)

• Detergent-dispersant (to disperse soot, water, etc.) (specialty)

• Viscosity modifier (specialty)

As mentioned above, the performance chemicals can be destined for

consumer or for industrial use

Just a few additional examples of formulations for consumer use

are:

Type of specialty For several industries For a single industry

Absorbents (**) X

Adhesives X

Agricultural (***) X Antioxidants X

Electronic chemicals (**) X

Explosives X Flame retardants X

Flavors and fragrances X

Food additives X Fuel additives X Household chemicals X

Plastic additives X Polymers (specialty) X

Printing inks X Reagents X

Rubber chemicals X Surfactants (specialty) X

Textile chemicals X Thickening agents X

Water treatment chemicals X

*Partly inorganic

**Mostly inorganic

***Pesticides only

Total U S Market, 1990 — $56 million

Estimated for 1995 — $60 million [10]

T A B L E 2.4 INDUSTRIAL AND A G R I C U L T U R A L S P E C I A L T I E S [9]

• Washing powders (and other cleaning materials)

• Toothpaste (and other cosmetic preparations)

• Paints, lacquers, etc

Examples for industrial performance chemicals might be:

• Wax emulsion for water-proofing textiles

• Metal cleaning formulation

• Printing ink

Characteristics of the formulated performance chemicals are:

• Simple production plants — generally for mixing of solids and liquids Production costs are low

• Professional expertise is required regarding use of the product

• The marketing/distribution network reaches the final consumer, and is backed up by extensive advertising and sometimes requires technical services

• Highly competitive, occasionally based upon quality but more often on customer psychology Many instances of breach of "fair play" on the part of non-professional manufacturers

• The difference between the direct cost of the product and the sale price is great, with "middlemen" entering the picture along the way

• The major market is local, especially for consumer products It is very difficult to export these kinds of products: production formu­ las are well-known and means of production are relatively simple, making it easier for non-professional elements to enter the mar­ ket Therefore, competition is high, the number of manufacturers

is large, and almost every country has its own production

Composition Chemicals

This group of composition chemicals includes thousands of products (!), each produced in limited quantities of tens to thousands of tons world­ wide per year Prices range as mentioned from $1 to $50/kg, and the size

of the market is expressed by the total sales turnover Compared to the annual turnover of commodities — hundreds of millions of dollars — synthetic chemicals in this group have a maximum annual turnover of

30% — less than $5 million;

40% — between $5 and 10 million;

20% — between $10 and 50 million;

7% — between $50 and 100 million;

3% — above $100 million

From the overall turnover of 185 billion dollars of chemicals sold in the United States in 1989, composition chemicals accounted for only eight percent (15 billion dollars) [12]

By our classification, "intermediates" are a sub-group of composi­ tion chemicals

Raw materials used in composition chemicals are usually "sim­ pler" intermediates and basic chemicals Composition chemicals and intermediates are produced usually by a limited number of worldwide sources (manufacturers) — between three to twenty

The main technical characteristics of this group of composition chemicals are:

• Production plants are generally equipped with reactors ranging between 2,000 and 16,000 liters The average manufacturing proc­ ess may require 1-4 reactors

• Unlike plants producing commodities, it is possible for such com­ position chemical production units to shift from product to product with relative ease, although they are not "universal" and the conversion still requires capital investment

• Production is flexible and can be changed according to market needs

• Batch processes (single or multi-staged) are used, and controlled

by modern control methods

• The energy factor is low: 2-5%

• Conveying equipment is relatively simple

• In terms of location all industrial sites are suitable, especially those with ecological provisions

• The products themselves are relatively pure, in comparison with basic chemicals

From the marketing point of view, the number of competitors decreases when the particular complexity of the product increases, from a few dozen competitors to just a few manufacturers The number of different products is great and the target markets are diversified Of the tens of thousands of chemicals in the marketplace, less than 1% are basic chemicals; all the rest are specialties and fine chemicals

These characteristics indicate that for this group of products great emphasis has to be placed on marketing efforts Marketing personnel

must be highly professional regarding the customer's technical needs,

as well as the application of the product Very often, technical services

at the customer's plant are required for the final adaptation of the product to the specific varying conditions, and for troubleshooting

A manufacturer of textile pigments must, of course, know how to produce his own chemicals properly But it is equally important that he

be familiar with the products' application and suitability to the various textile technologies, as well as to remain updated on changing methods

of applications and varying textile market needs Selling costs are therefore relatively high

In contrast to commodities, all other types of chemicals are not dependent on natural sources A manufacturer can outwit his competi­ tor if he is more flexible, better acquainted with market requirements, and uses a "better" process

A breakdown of direct production costs for 10 tons per month of a product selling for $10/kg may look like the following:

Raw materials 30-60% of sales price

Total 49-89% of the sales price

The cost of the raw materials is highly influenced by the effectiveness

of the process ("yield") Much more than for commodities, alternative processes for any given intermediate or performance chemical exist, with a lot of room for scientific and technological innovations The chemical skill significantly contributes to increased yield (reducing the cost of the raw materials) or to increasing the throughput (reducing labor and maintenance) Since these factors make up most of the production cost, a "wiser" process will produce a clearly significant advantage that can amount up to tens of percents of the product's price Fine Chemicals

These materials are much more complex from the chemical point of view, and can be either organic or inorganic They are highly priced, between $50 to $l,000/kg In their production, high quality and purity are required

The list of materials in this category is long; however, the materi­ als vary in terms of consumption

As examples, we wish to mention pheromones (biological pesti­ cides), materials for medical diagnosis, etc Certain pharmaceuticals fall into the category of fine chemicals (although it is difficult to con­ sider Aspirin, for instance, as a fine chemical: its annual production in the United States alone is 15,000 tons, sold at $5/kg) Many flavors and fragrances, electronic materials, photography chemicals and laboratory reagents are also categorized here

The borderline between composition chemicals and fine chemicals

is not clearly defined, and as Polastro [11] noted, over the years it is continuously moving towards more complex materials (therefore, more expensive materials): in the 1940s the insecticide DDT was very popular:

The use of fine chemicals is very specific with each product indi­ cated for one purpose only, and often for one customer only

Quantities required of each material are not large — from a few hundreds of kilograms to a few dozen tons

The tendency of increasing purity while moving from commodities

to composition chemicals also continues towards fine chemicals Today, chemical manufacturers of wafers for semiconductors are required to supply products where content of metal impurities will be less than 100 ppb! [13]

In order to avoid confusion, it should be noted that one often comes across the expression "bulk chemical" not in the context of commodities, but rather for pharmaceuticals The reference here is to the marketing

of the active material, which is sold in bags or drums, and which subsequently undergoes a formulation process to tablets, elixirs, cap­ sules, injections, etc

Fine chemicals are prepared in laboratory production modes, usu­ ally using glassware ranging in capacity from one to one-hundred liters The systems are flexible and multi-purpose allowing for easy adjust­ ment from one process to another

The energy and transportation components are low, and labor expenses are high Relatively high professional manpower is required

A paradoxical situation is exemplified by Novo This Danish company produces insulin — by all means a fine chemical — from porcine and bovine pancreas glands Since the supply of this raw material is critical, Novo spent in 1980 over Dkr 200 million (around 24% of insulin sales!) to procure, transport and store the pancreas glands A worldwide logistics network con­ necting more than 20 countries was established, using refriger­ ated containers shipped by road, rail, sea and air A real commodity-type operation

In this market, the number of competitors is very small, typically between zero to half-a-dozen; however, it is not easy to exploit this advantage

Three basic elements influence the profitability of a product: cost

of process development, efficiency of the process, and marketing chan­ nels Therefore, profitability can swing from one extreme to another and varies from product to product

This field may be regarded as the production of tailor-made prod­ ucts, characterized by a narrow market volume Should a manufacturer

be asked to produce a certain product for a particular customer, and providing that the manufacturer has a suitable process — the deal may

be quite rewarding (there is probably no competition) In all other situations, the profitability picture is less clear

Unlike the field of commodities and specialties (wherein it is possible to start production in the middle of the "product's life cycle", and where commercial results depend on finding a good process), for many fine chemicals the major contribution exists only at the beginning

of the "product's life" This is due to shorter life cycles, and the appear­ ance of additional competitors when success becomes apparent

As stated earlier, in this chapter we attempted to organize and put some order into this multi-product field of industrial chemicals The weak­ ness of this effort can be seen in an analysis presented in the January

1989 issue of Chemical Week, which ignores all systematic classifica­

tions, and uses its own "common sense" by distinguishing the following chemical groups:

[1] "Chem.-Sources USA", Chemical Directories Publ., 1981

[2] D.G Jones, "Chemistry and Industry", Clarendon Press, 1967

[3] P Godfrey, "Functional Fine Chemicals — Stepping Stones to Specialities", Europ Chem News, Speciality Chemicals Suppl., October 24, 1983, p 4 [4] J Horiszny, 'What's Special in Specialty Chemicals Now?", Chemical Busi­ ness, April 1987, p 10

[5] D.S Cox, "The Specialty Chemicals Business and Strategies for Success", p

8 in the monograph, "Specialty Chemicals — Strategies for Success", SRI International, November 1984

[6] P.B Godfrey, "Speciality and Fine Chemicals — a Panacea for Profits?", Specialty Chemicals, February 1984