Tài liệu Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook docx

Chang,and Alan McCurdy 5.2 System Impairments Influencing Fiber Design 1245.2.1 Limitations from Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio 1245.2.2 Limitations from Intersymbol Interference 1255.2.3

Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook

Specialty Optical Fibers

Handbook

MCH Engineering, LLC, Alameda, California

T F M O R S E

Photonics Center, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts

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To my wife Shiva for her unconditional love, support, and patience

A.M.

‘‘Under the shade of your tresses,

how softly slept my heart,

intoxicated and lovely,

so peaceful and so free ’’

RUMI

To Edelgard for her patience, wisdom, and love.

T.F.M.

2.3 Linear Lightwave Propagation in an Optical Fiber 202.3.1 Electromagnetic Preliminaries 202.3.2 Intuition from the Slab Waveguide 222.3.3 Optical Fiber: A Cylindrical Waveguide 242.3.4 The Linearly Polarized Mode Set LPlm 252.3.5 Finite Element Analysis for Waveguide Calculations 272.4 Working Definitions of Cutoff Wavelength 29

2.4.2 Theoretical Cutoff Wavelength 292.4.3 Effective Cutoff Wavelengths 292.5 Impact of Profile Design on Macrobending Losses 322.5.1 The Depressed Cladding Fiber Design 322.5.2 Phenomenology of Macrobending Loss 34

2.7 Origins of Chromatic Dispersion 38

3.5 Direct Nanoparticle Deposition 75

3.6 Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition 773.6.1 Chemical Equilibria: Dopant Incorporation 783.6.2 Purification from Hydroxyl Contamination 80

Steven R Schmid and Anthony F Toussaint

4.2 Early History of Coatings for Optical Fiber 964.3 Evolution of Optical Fibers and Protective Coatings 974.3.1 Coating Contributions to Microbending

4.3.2 Glass Fiber Fracture Mechanics and Coating

Contributions to Fiber Strength Retention 994.3.3 Durability of Fiber Optic Coatings 100

5 Single-Mode Fibers for Communications 123Robert Lingle, Jr., David W Peckham, Kai H Chang,

and Alan McCurdy

5.2 System Impairments Influencing Fiber Design 1245.2.1 Limitations from Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio 1245.2.2 Limitations from Intersymbol Interference 1255.2.3 Limitations from Nonlinearity 1265.2.4 Limitations from Amplifier Technology 1275.2.5 Can Fiber Design Be Used to Optimize

5.3 Overview of ITU Standards Fiber Categories 1295.4 Optical Fibers for Reduced Attenuation 1325.4.1 Pure Silica Core Fiber 1335.4.2 Zero Water Peak Fiber 1335.5 Optical Fiber Design Principles for Wideband

and High Bit Rate Transmission 1415.5.1 Precise Dispersion Compensation 1425.5.2 Dispersion Compensation Fiber Technology 1425.5.3 Full-Band Dispersion Compensation 1435.5.4 Requirement for Low Residual Dispersion 1445.5.5 Factors Affecting Nonlinearity 1455.5.6 Impairments Affecting Raman Amplification 1475.5.7 Systems Implications of Tx Fiber PMD 1475.5.8 Summary of Design Principles 1485.6 Design of Nonzero Dispersion Fibers 1485.6.1 Fiber Transmission Parameter Tradeoffs 1495.6.2 Realizability, Manufacturability, and Scalability 150

5.6.4 Medium-Dispersion NZDFs 1555.7 A New Paradigm in Transmission Line Design 158

Lars-Erik Nilsson, A˚sa Claesson, Walter Margulis,

and Pierre-Yves Fonjallaz

6.3 Fibers with Internal Electrodes 169

David J DiGiovanni, Roman Shubochkin, T F Morse,

and Borut Lenardic

7.3 Host Glasses for Rare Earth Ions 1987.4 Fabrication of Rare Earth-Doped Fibers 2007.4.1 Overview of Optical Fiber Fabrication 2007.4.2 Incorporation of Rare Earth Elements 2027.4.3 Summary of Rare Earth-Doped

7.5.1 Principles of Operation 211

7.5.3 Fiber Composition Issues 2167.5.4 Short Wavelength Amplifiers 219

8.4 PM Fiber Types: Stress and Form Birefringent 2508.4.1 Stress-Birefringent Fibers: Bowtie, PANDA,

8.4.2 Elliptical Core, Form-Birefringent Fiber 2538.4.3 Microstructure (‘‘Holey’’) Fibers 254

8.6.7 Extinction Ratio (ER) 269

8.6.9 Effect of Test Conditions and Environment

on Polarization Maintaining Performance 2708.7 Mechanical and Lifetime Properties 2738.7.1 Strength Paradox I: Fragile Preforms Make

Exceptionally Strong Fibers 2738.7.2 Strength Paradox II: Thin Fibers Can Be Stronger

9 Photosensitive Fibers 279Andre´ Croteau and Anne Claire Jacob Poulin

9.3 Standard Numerical Aperture Fibers 2829.3.1 Standard Single-Mode Fibers 2839.3.2 Boron-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers 2839.3.3 Antimony-Doped Fibers 286

9.4.1 Heavily Ge-Doped Silica Optical Fibers 2889.4.2 Tin-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers 2899.4.3 Indium-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers 2909.5 Cladding Mode Suppression 2919.6 Rare Earth-Doped Photosensitive Fibers 2939.6.1 Germano-Alumino-Silicate Glass Host Core 294

Steven A Jacobs, Burak Temelkuran, Ori Weisberg, Mihai

Ibanescu, Steven G Johnson, and Marin Soljac˘ic´

10.2 Light Transmission in Hollow-Core Fiber 32010.2.1 Hollow Metal Waveguides 32310.2.2 Wave-Guiding in Bragg and OmniGuide Fibers 32410.2.3 Loss Mechanisms in OmniGuide Fibers 32710.2.4 Wave-Guiding in 2D Photonic-Crystal Fiber 34110.3 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers 34710.3.1 Hollow-Core Fibers for Medical Applications 34710.3.2 Potential Telecom Applications 34910.3.3 Hollow-Core Fibers as Gas Cells 35010.3.4 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers for

10.3.5 Industrial Applications 35110.4 Hollow-Core Fiber Manufacturing 35210.4.1 OmniGuide Fiber Manufacturing 35210.4.2 Techniques Used in the Manufacture

of Other Hollow-Core Fibers 355

11.3 Modeling of Single-Mode Wave-Guiding

Properties of Silica Nanofibers 362

11.3.2 Power Distribution: Fraction of Power

Inside the Core and Effective Diameter 36711.3.3 Group Velocity and Waveguide Dispersion 37211.4 Fabrication and Microscopic Characterization of Silica

11.4.1 Two-Step Taper Drawing of Silica Nanofibers 37511.4.2 Electron Microscope Study of Silica Nanofibers 37711.5 Properties of Silica Nanofibers 38111.5.1 Micromanipulation and Mechanical Properties 38111.5.2 Wave-Guiding and Optical Loss 38511.6 Applications and Potential Uses of Silica Nanofibers 38811.6.1 Microscale and Nanoscale Photonic Components 38911.6.2 Nanofiber Optical Sensors 39411.6.3 Additional Applications 396

12 Chiral Fibers 401Victor I Kopp and Azriel Z Genack

12.2 Three Types of Chiral Gratings 40212.3 Chiral Short-Period Grating: In-Fiber Analog of CLC 40612.3.1 Fabrication Challenges 40612.3.2 Analogy to 1D Chiral Planar Structure 40612.3.3 Comparison of 1D Chiral to 1D Isotropic

12.3.4 Microwave Experiments 41112.3.5 Optical Measurements 41412.4 Chiral Intermediate-Period Grating 41512.4.1 Symmetry of CIPG Structures 41512.4.2 Microwave Experiments 41512.4.3 Optical Measurements 41612.4.4 Synchronization of Optical Polarization

Conversion and Scattering 41612.5 Chiral Long-Period Grating 42312.5.1 Optical Measurements 423

13.4 Polycrystalline (PC) Fibers 44113.5 Single-Crystal (SC) Fibers 443

14 Hermetic Optical Fibers: Carbon-Coated Fibers 453Paul J Lemaire and Eric A Lindholm

14.3 Deposition of Carbon Coatings on Fibers 46014.4 Fatigue Properties of Carbon-Coated Fibers 46214.5 Hydrogen Losses in Optical Fibers 46614.5.1 Hydrogen-Induced Losses in Nonhermetic Fibers 46614.5.2 Hydrogen Losses in Carbon-Coated

14.5.3 Testing of Hermetic Fibers in Hydrogen 46914.5.4 Diffusion of Hydrogen in Hermetic Fibers 47214.5.5 Effects of Glass Composition on Hermetic Fiber

16 Elliptical Core and D-Shape Fibers 513Thomas D Monte, Liming Wang, and Richard Dyott

Cladding and Germanosilicate Core 52316.4.3 Standard Etching (Etch to Reach

16.4.5 Partial and Full Core Removal 52816.5 D-Shape Fiber Components 528

17 Multimode, Large-Core, and Plastic Clad (PCS) Fibers 563Bolesh J Skutnik and Cheryl A Smith

17.2 Large-Core Silica/Silica (All-Silica) Fiber 56517.3 High NA and Low NA Silica/Silica Fibers 56817.4 Plastic and Hard Polymer Clad Silica Fibers 57217.4.1 Plastic Clad Silica Fibers 57217.4.2 Hard Polymer Clad Silica 57217.5 Silica Fibers with Nano-Porous Cladding/Coating 57417.6 Unlimited Application Potential 575

19.2 Propagation of Light in Liquid-Core Fibers:

Modal Features, Dispersion, and Polarization Effects 60019.3 Fabrication and Characterization Methods 602

19.4.1 Waveguides for Special Spectral

Regions and Optical Chemical Analysis 605

19.4.3 Nonlinear Optical Effects 60919.4.4 Medical Applications 61019.4.5 Special Waveguide Structures

and Devices with Liquid Cores 612

20 Polymer Optical Fibers 617Olaf Ziemann

20.2.2 Light Propagation Effects in POF 620

20.6.3 POF in Home Networks 640

20.7.1 SI POF: Preform and Extrusion Method 64220.7.2 Production of Graded-Index Profiles 64420.7.3 Interfacial Gel Polymerization Technique 644

22 Optical Fibers for Industrial Laser Applications 671Adrian Carter, Kanishka Tankala, and Bryce Samson

22.1 Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers: An Introduction 671

22.3 Large-Mode-Area Ytterbium-Doped Fibers: The Power

22.4 Polarization-Maintaining LMA DCF 67922.5 Fiber Lasers: State of the Art 68622.6 Large-Mode-Area Eye-Safe Fibers 688

23.3 Transendoscopic Surgical Application 703

He has developed fiber Bragg grating downhole pressure and temperature sors, fiber optic high voltage and current sensors, and others He has alsoconducted research to investigate hydrogen effects on fibers.

sen-Dr Me´ndez has written over 45 technical publications, holds four US patentsand is the recipient of an R&D 100 award He is also chairman of the nextInternational Optical Fiber Sensors Conference (OFS-18) Dr Me´ndez holds aPhD degree in electrical engineering from Brown University

T F Morse T F Morse received a BA (english literature, 1953) and an MA(history, 1954) from Duke University He was an International Institute ofEducation Fellow at Cologne University, Germany in 1954–1955 (history,political science) From 1956–1959, he was employed at Pratt and WhitneyAircraft, East Hartford, Connecticut, during which time he received an ScB(mechanical engineering) from the University of Hartford, and a MSc (mechan-ical engineering) from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Hartford Graduate Center.Attending graduate school at Northwestern University, he was awarded a PhD(mechanical engineering) in 1961 From 1961–1963, he was a Senior Scientist atARAP in Princeton, New Jersey where he worked on a variety of theoreticalfluid mechanical problems As an Engineering Professor at Brown University,Providence, Rhode Island (1963–1999), he was the Director of the Laboratoryfor Lightwave Technology and in 1969–1970, was a Senior Fulbright ResearchProfessor at the Deutsche Versuchs-Anstalt fuer Luft u Raumforschung Since

1999, he has been at Boston University as Professor of Electrical and ComputingEngineering and Director of the Laboratory for Lightwave Technology He isthe author of over 120 papers and holds five patents His research interests andareas of expertise are in fiber processing, photonic materials, fiber lasers, andfiber sensors

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List of Contributors

Moshe Ben-David Dr Moshe Ben-David received his PhD degree in physicsfrom Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel in 2003 He has over 10 years experi-ence in developing electro-optical systems for military, telecommunication, en-tertainment, and medical applications, currently with Glucon Medical He is theauthor of over 20 papers, 4 book chapters, and 4 patents His research fields are:optical fibers and waveguides, laser tissue interaction, optical diagnosticsmethods in medicine, and light propagation in tissue

Ryan Bise Dr Ryan Bise is a member of the Technical Staff at OFS tories in Murray Hill, New Jersey, formerly the optical fiber research arm of BellLaboratories, Lucent Technologies His research focus is on the fabrication anddesign of microstructured fibers He received his undergraduate and graduatetraining in chemistry from UCLA and UC Berkeley, respectively

Labora-Vladimir A Bogatyrev Vladimir A Bogatyrev graduated from the MoscowPhysical Technological Institute in 1972 From 1972 to 1982, he investigatedhigh-power neodymium lasers in PN Lebedev Physical Institute RAS Since

1982, his research interests were moved to the technology of optical fibers andrelated topics (the fiber drawing process, properties of polymer and hermeticcoatings, strength and fatigue of optical fibers) He is currently a ResearchFellow of the Fiber Optics Research Center RAS, Moscow, Russia His mainactivity is focused on metal-coated fibers (technology of fabrication and inves-tigation of their mechanical and optical properties)

Adrian Carter Dr Adrian Carter is the founder and CTO of Nufern Prior tothat, he was an Assistant Professor at the Laboratory for Lightwave Technology

at Brown University Dr Carter was a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Optical FibreTechnology Center in Sydney, Australia where he focused on the design andfabrication of novel specialty optical fibers, having also been a Research Fellow

at the Technische Universitaet Hamburg-Harburg, Germany He received hisPhD in the Department of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry and his BSc inmathematics and chemistry from the University of Sydney, where he is currentlyalso an Honorary Research Associate

Kai H Chang Kai H Chang has been the Engineering Manager at HeraeusTenevo USA since 2005 From 1986 to 2005, he worked at Bell Laboratories of

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AT&T/Lucent Technologies/OFS in Norcross, Georgia, and he was the nical Manager of MCVD Technology and a Distinguished Inventor Kai hasworked on optical loss mechanisms in silica fibers and was one of the pioneers

Tech-that developed zero-OH AllWave1 fiber Kai obtained his PhD in physics from

University of Toronto in 1984 and worked at Caltech as a Research Fellow inphysics from 1984 to 1986

A˚ sa Claesson A˚sa Claesson graduated with a MSc in materials science fromUppsala University, Sweden, in 1997 and has since been active in developingfiber based optical components, as well as optical specialty fibers She has co-authored more than 20 scientific publications, 4 patents, and 2 book chapters.She is presently the manager of Acreo Fiberlab in Sweden

James P Clarkin James P Clarkin is the Vice President of BusinessDevelopment at Polymicro Technologies, LLC Mr Clarkin has 20 years experi-ence in the design, performance, and manufacture of all types of optical fibers.Prior to joining Polymicro in 1998, Jim spent 12 years at Ensign Bickford/Spectran Corporation as Engineering Manager and Product Line Manager.While at Spectran, Jim led the development and production of their specialtyoptical fiber and cable product lines Jim has a BS in chemical engineering, an

MS in materials science, and an MBA, all from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.Andre´ Croteau Andre´ Croteau received an MSc degree in physics from Queen’sUniversity in Kingston, Ontario, Canada in 1986 From 1986 to 1988, Andre´ was

a researcher at the fundamental research laboratory of NEC Corporation

in Japan, where he worked on the development of electro-optic thin films In

1988, Andre´ joined INO as a researcher in the specialty optical fiber programwhere he became the manager in 1998 His main research activities includethe development of active rare earth-doped fibers, micro structured fibers,and photosensitive fibers He has published over 20 papers and received 3patents

David J DiGiovanni David J DiGiovanni is President of OFS Laboratories,LLC, the central research organization of OFS David began his career with apostdoctoral position in the Optical Fiber Research Department in Bell Labora-tories and has weathered the transition from AT&T to Lucent to OFS in what isessentially the same organization He has worked on various phenomena related

to optical fiber design and fabrication and has made notable contributions toerbium-doped optical fibers for amplifiers, high power amplifiers and lasers,Raman amplification, and optical components David holds several degreesfrom Brown University, including a PhD in mechanical engineering He is amember of IEEE and an OSA Fellow

Chris Emslie Dr Chris Emslie is Managing Director of Fibercore Limited Hebegan his career in optical fibers in 1982 at Corning’s pilot manufacturing facility

in Wilmington, North Carolina He received a PhD from the Optical FiberGroup at the University of Southampton (UK) His thesis focused on themanufacture of low-loss polymer fibers, under the guidance of Professors AlecGambling and David Payne Dr Emslie left Southampton in 1987 to take acommercial role at a fledgling optical components company, York VSOP, andtaking charge of its Specialty Fiber business in 1989 This business graduallyevolved into Fibercore Limited

Pierre-Yves Fonjallaz Pierre-Yves Fonjallaz obtained the MSc degree inphysical engineering and the PhD degree (fibre Bragg gratings) from the SwissFederal Institute of Technology in Lausanne in 1990 and 1995 After a postdoc-toral at KTH, he started to work at Acreo AB (Sweden) in 1996 He becamemanager of the Optical Fibre Components group (2000) He was appointeddirector of the Kista Photonics Research Centre (KPRC) in 2003, and as suchcoordinates the collaboration between Acreo and the Royal Institute of Tech-nology (KTH) in photonics He has been organizing a number of workshops andconferences, such as ECOC in 2004

Israel Gannot Professor Israel Gannot received his PhD degree in biomedicalengineering from Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel in 1994 Between 1994and 1997, he held a National Academy Sciences postdoctoral fellowship Since

1997, he has been a faculty member at Tel-Aviv University, and since 2005 he hasbeen a professor of biomedical engineering at George Washington University.Professor Gannot is a Fellow of the American Institute of Medical and Bio-logical Engineering He is the author of over 100 papers, 6 book chapters, and 10patents His research fields are: optical fibers and waveguides, laser tissue inter-action, optical diagnostics methods in medicine, and biomedical informatics.Azriel Z Genack Azriel Genack is a Distinguished Professor of Physics atQueens College of CUNY, where he has been since 1984 He received his BAdegree from Columbia College and his PhD in physics from Columbia Univer-sity Following his graduate studies, he was a Postdoctoral Research Associate atthe City College of CUNY and then at the IBM Research Laboratory in SanJose He was a researcher at the Exxon Corporate Research Laboratories from

1977 until 1984 He co-founded Chiral Photonics in 1999 His research centers onthe photonics of chiral structures and the statistics of propagation and localiza-tion of optical and microwave radiation in random media

James A Harrington James A Harrington is a Professor of Ceramic Scienceand Engineering at Rutgers University Dr Harrington has over 30 years ofresearch experience in IR materials and fibers and is the inventor of both the

List of Contributors xxvii

hollow sapphire and hollow glass waveguides He is generally recognized as one

of the world’s leading experts in this continually evolving field Prior to joiningthe Fiber Optic Materials Research Program at Rutgers University in 1989, hewas Director of Infrared Fiber Operations for Heraeus LaserSonics, and prior tothis role, he was the Program Manager for IR fiber optics at Hughes ResearchLaboratories in Malibu, California

Juan Herna´ndez-Cordero Dr Juan Herna´ndez-Cordero received his BSc degree

in electrical engineering from the National Autonomous University of Mexico(UNAM) in 1992 He was awarded a full scholarship to pursue graduate studies

at Brown University, where he earned a Master’s (1996) and PhD degrees (1999)from the Division of Engineering After a year as a Postdoctoral ResearchAssociate at the Laboratory for Lightwave Technology in Boston University,

he joined the Materials Research Institute (IIM) of the UNAM, where he hasestablished the Fiber Lasers and Fiber Sensors Laboratory His fields of interestinclude optical fiber sensors, fiber lasers, and fiber devices

Mihai Ibanescu Mihai Ibanescu received his BS and PhD degrees in physicsfrom the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 2000 and 2005 From 2005 to

2006, he was a Postdoctoral Associate in the research group of Professor JohnJoannopoulos at MIT During 2000–2001, and since 2006, he worked withOmniGuide Inc., in Cambridge, Massachusetts His main research interests arephotonic crystals, photonic band gap fibers, and hollow-core fiber applications.Anne Claire Jacob Poulin Anne Claire Jacob Poulin joined INO as a researcher

in 2000 after a PhD degree in physics from the Center for Optics, Photonics, andLasers of Laval University, Quebec, Canada and a MSc degree in physics fromthe Centre de Physique Mole´culaire Optique et Hertzienne, Bordeaux I Univer-sity, France She first worked in the communication field with the fabrication ofpassive optical components with photosensitive fibers and the development ofoptical fiber amplifiers with specialty-doped fluoride fibers Her current researchinterests are on the fabrication and application of photonics devices to sensorssystems in the agri-food and biomedical fields

Steven A Jacobs Steven Jacobs is the Systems Engineering Group Leader atOmniGuide Inc., where he leads the development of new medical systems thatenable minimally invasive laser surgery based on OmniGuide’s photonic-band-gap fiber technology Prior to that position, he was the Theory and SimulationsGroup Leader He received his BS degree from MIT and his PhD degree fromthe University of Wisconsin, both in physics Before joining OmniGuide in 2001,

Dr Jacobs was a Distinguished Member of Technical Staff at Bell Laboratories.His professional interests include computational electromagnetics and the use ofcomputational and statistical methods for yield and process improvement

Steven G Johnson Steven Johnson received his PhD in 2001 from the ment of Physics at MIT He is currently an Assistant Professor of AppliedMathematics at MIT, and also consults for OmniGuide Inc He has writtenseveral widely-used, free software packages, including the MPB package to solvefor photonic eigenmodes and the FFTW fast Fourier transform library (forwhich he received the 1999 J H Wilkinson Prize) In 2002, Kluwer publishedhis PhD thesis as a book, Photonic Crystals: The Road from Theory to Practice.His research interests include the development of new semi-analytical and nu-merical methods for electromagnetism in high-index-contrast systems.

Depart-Jinkee Kim Jinkee Kim received BS and MS degrees in electrical engineeringfrom the Seoul National University and a PhD degree in electrical and computerengineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology His doctoral research was

on integrated optics, 100Gbit/s telecommunication, and digital signal processing

He worked at CREOL in Orlando as a Research Scientist, where his researchwas focused on photonic control systems for phased arrays In 1996, he joinedBell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies (now OFS), and works in fiber opticsR&D He has designed and commercialized new optical fibers and holds several

US patents

Victor I Kopp Victor Kopp is the Director of Research and Development atChiral Photonics, Inc He received his PhD degree in laser physics from theVavilov Optical Institute, St Petersburg, Russia in 1992 In 1999, working as aResearch Associate at Queens College of CUNY, he developed the scientificbasis for Chiral Photonics, Inc with Azriel Genack and became a co-founder ofthe company His research interests include wave propagation in periodic media,nonlinear optics, and photonic devices He is the author and co-author of over 25papers, as well as over 20 US and international patents on photonic devices,lasers, and fiber gratings

Charles R Kurkjian Dr Kurkjian is currently a visiting scientist in the ials Science and Engineering Department at Rutgers University, Piscataway,New Jersey He had previously worked at Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill,New Jersey for 35 years and at Telcordia (formerly Bellcore) in Morristown,New Jersey for five years before retiring and joining Rutgers in 1999 He hasworked in a number of areas of inorganic glass research and development.Currently, he is concentrating on the mechanical properties of such glasses, aswell as the strength and reliability of silica lightguide fibers

Mater-Paul J Lemaire Paul J Lemaire is a Senior Lead Engineer with GeneralDynamics Advanced Information Systems in Florham Park, New Jersey Hehas held technical and management positions at OFS, Lucent Technologies, andBell Laboratories His work has been in the areas of optical fiber fabrication,

List of Contributors xxix

hermetic fibers, fiber design, fiber Bragg gratings, photosensitivity, fiber andcomponent reliability, hydrogen aging, and other topics pertaining to photonics,materials, and reliability He has numerous publications, presentations, andpatents in these areas He received both his BS and PhD degrees from theDepartment of Materials Science and Engineering at MIT.

Borut Lenardic Borut Lenardic received a BSc degree in solid state physicsfrom the Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Ljubljana in 1981 andstarted his work in fiber optics in 1986 as a Development Engineer in Iskra,Slovenia Later he worked as a Process Specialist in Cabloptic, Switzerland andFotona, Slovenia From 1996 to 2001, he worked as a consultant for Nextrom

Oy In 2001 he founded Optacore, a company dedicated to development ofpreform and fiber fabrication process, based on furnace-supported CVD, inLjubljana, Slovenia Since 2004, he has been developing technology and devicesfor fabrication of rare earth-doped fibers with emphasis on aerosol and hightemperature sublimation processes

Eric A Lindholm Eric A Lindholm received his BSci in ceramic engineeringand his BA in english from Rutgers University in 1991 He spent five years atSpectran Communication Fiber Technologies as a Fiber Draw Engineer beforebecoming a Fiber Development Engineer at OFS Specialty Photonics (formerlySpectran Specialty Optics) in 1996 Eric has since focused on the hermetic carbondeposition process, polymer materials, and fiber draw processes designed toenhance the durability of optical fibers used in adverse environment applica-tions, and characterization of the fibers He has written and given severaltechnical presentations on related subjects at various conferences

Robert Lingle, Jr Robert Lingle, Jr completed his BS degree in physics fromthe University of Alabama, a PhD in chemical physics from the Louisiana StateUniversity, and held a postdoctoral fellowship at UC Berkeley in ultrafastphysical chemistry He joined the Optical Fiber Division of Lucent Technologies,Bell Laboratories in 1997, where he remained through the transition to OFS Hehas conducted research on ultrafast electronic and vibrational processes insolution and at interfaces, sol-gel materials, physics and chemistry for opticalmaterials, optical fiber design, and nonlinear impairments in optical transmis-sion Dr Lingle is Director of Fiber Design and Transmission Systems at OFS.John B MacChesney John MacChesney is a retired Bell Labs Fellow and formermember of Lucent’s Photonics Materials Research Department Dr MacChesney

is best known for his invention of the modified chemical vapor deposition(MCVD) process, for which he received the National Academy of Engineering’sCharles Stark Draper Prize He joined Bell Labs in 1959 and holds morethan 100 domestic and foreign patents Dr MacChesney was elected to the

National Academy of Engineering in 1985, and has received awards from theAmerican Ceramic Society, the IEEE, the American Physical Society, the Society

of Sigma Xi, and others He holds a BA degree from Bowdoin College and a PhDfrom Pennsylvania State University

Walter Margulis Walter Margulis received his PhD from Imperial College,London in 1981 Presently, he works on the fabrication, characterization, andapplications of fiber components, design, and fabrication of special fibers foractive functions, poling of glass, photosensitivity, and applications of Bragggratings in optical fibers, optical amplifiers, and passive microwave components

He has co-authored ~185 papers/conference contributions, ~15 patent tions and has supervised over 25 graduate students He is a Senior Scientist atAcreo AB in Sweden, and a Guest Professor at the Royal Institute of Technology

applica-in Stockholm

M John Matthewson John Matthewson received his BA, MA, and PhDdegrees in physics from Cambridge University He continued at Cambridgeconcurrently as the Goldsmiths Junior Research Fellow at Churchill Collegeand as a SRC Postdoctoral Fellow He later worked at the Cambridge UniversityComputing Service, AT&T Bell Laboratories, and IBM Almaden ResearchCenter He is now a Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at RutgersUniversity His research group studies strength and fatigue of optical materialsand modeling of materials processing He has published over 100 papers, many

of them concerning optical fiber reliability, and he has been editor or co-editor ofsix conference proceedings on the same topic

Eric Mazur Professor Eric Mazur holds a triple appointment as HarvardCollege Professor, Gordon McKay Professor of Applied Physics, and Professor

of Physics at Harvard University His area of interest is optical physics Hereceived a PhD degree in experimental physics at the University of Leiden in theNetherlands Dr Mazur is author or co-author of 187 scientific publications andhas made important contributions to spectroscopy, light scattering, and studies

of electronic and structural events in solids that occur on the femtosecond timescale In 1988, he was awarded a Presidential Young Investigator Award and is aFellow and Centennial Lecturer of the American Physical Society

Alan McCurdy Alan McCurdy graduated with degrees in chemical eering (BS) and physics (BS) from Carnegie-Mellon University, and appliedphysics (PhD) from Yale University He spent nine years on the faculty of theDepartment of Electrical Engineering at the University of Southern California.His telecommunications work began at Lucent Technologies, then Avaya, andmost recently OFS He has done research on high power, electron-beam drivenmicrowave devices, transmission problems in copper-based enterprise network

engin-List of Contributors xxxi

systems, and statistical and nonlinear problems in optical communications.

Dr McCurdy is currently a Distinguished Member of Technical Staff in theOptical Fiber Design Group at OFS

Thomas D Monte Thomas D Monte received a PhD degree in electricalengineering from the University of Illinois at Chicago in 1996 As PrincipalPhotonics Engineer at KVH Industries, Inc., he has been involved in the research

of elliptical core polarization maintaining optical fiber components and sensorassemblies Between 1983 and 2000, Dr Monte held various engineeringand research positions at Andrew Corporation developing fiber optic devices,microwave waveguide components, and antennas He holds 11 US patentsand several international patents in the fields of microwave and fiber opticcomponents

Stephen Montgomery Stephen Montgomery is the President of ElectroniCast,

a firm specializing in communication network products and services demandforecasting Stephen is also the Director of the Fiber Optics Components groupand the Network Communication Products group at ElectroniCast He has givennumerous presentations and published a number of articles on optical fibermarkets, technology, applications, and installations He is a member of theEditorial Advisory Board of Lightwave magazine and the Advisory Board ofthe Gigabit Ethernet Conference (GEC) Stephen holds a BA and MBA inTechnology Management

Lars-Erik Nilsson Lars-Erik Nilsson graduated with a degree in chemistry fromthe Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm in 1973, and has since been activewithin industry as well as academia with a main focus on development of opticalinstruments and components Lars-Erik has been engaged in design and devel-opment of specialty optical fibers and fiber-based components for over 10 yearsand is presently heading the Optical Fiber Component group at Acreo AB inSweden He has co-authored over 12 scientific publications and is the inventor/co-inventor of six patents

David W Peckham David W Peckham received BS and ME degrees

in electrical engineering from the University of Florida He started his career atthe Bell Labs Transmission Media Laboratory in 1982 working on optical fibermeasurement techniques Since 1989, he has focused on the design, processdevelopment, and commercialization of optical fibers for high capacity trans-mission systems at Bell Labs, Lucent, and currently, OFS He received the 2002OSA Engineering Excellence Award recognizing his contributions in the designand commercialization of fibers enabling high speed, wideband WDM networks

He is currently a Consulting Member of Technical Staff at OFS

J Renee Pedrazzani J Renee Pedrazzani is a PhD candidate at the Institute ofOptics of the University of Rochester, where she is engaged in semiconductordevice research at the Molecular Beam Epitaxy Laboratory She received her BSand MS degrees in electrical engineering from the Virginia Polytechnic Instituteand State University, and conducted her MS research at the Fiber and Electro-Optic Research Center Before beginning her doctoral studies, she worked withoptical fiber gratings at Lucent Technologies.

Bryce Samson Dr Samson is the Vice President of Business Development atNufern, having joined Nufern from Corning, where he served as Senior ResearchScientist in the areas of doped fibers, fiber amplifiers, and lasers Prior to that, heworked as a Research Fellow at the University of Southampton, focusing onnovel fibers and fiber device physics He received his PhD in physics from EssexUniversity in the UK and his BS degree in applied physics from Heriott-WattUniversity in Edinburgh, UK He is an inventor on several patents in the amplifierand fiber laser field and has been published in scores of industry journals.Steven R Schmid Steven R Schmid is R&D Manager for DSM Desotech’s FiberOptic Materials Research business He has also held positions in product man-agement, market development, and business management He has 30 years experi-ence in the UV coatings industry Steven earned a BS in chemistry (University ofIlliniois), an MS degree in chemistry (University of Houston), and an MBA (IIT).Steven has authored over a dozen papers, been awarded 10 patents, and madeseveral international presentations He was a co-recipient of an IR100 Award in

1987, and also a co-recipient of DSM’s Special Inventor Award in 2001

Sergei Semjonov Sergei Semjonov graduated from the Moscow Physical nological Institute in 1982 In 1997, he received his PhD in Physics from GeneralPhysics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia He is currently aDeputy Director of the Fiber Optics Research Center RAS, Moscow, Russia Hisresearch interests cover different aspects of modern fiber optics: fabrication ofpreforms, the fiber drawing process, properties of polymer and hermetic coatings,strength and fatigue of optical fibers, influence of drawing conditions on opticalproperties of optical fibers, development of rare earth-doped as well as highly Ge-and P-doped fibers, photosensitivity of optical fibers, and microstructured fibers.Roman Shubochkin Roman Shubochkin received BS and MS degrees in opticalengineering from Moscow Power Engineering Institute, Moscow, Russia in 1987and 1989, respectively Between 1989 and 1994, he worked as a Junior ResearchScientist in Fiber Optics and Solid State Physics Departments in the GeneralPhysics Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow He received an

Tech-MS and PhD in electrical engineering from Brown University in 1997 and 2003,respectively Since 2000, he has been a research associate in the Lightwave

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Technology Laboratory at Boston University Dr Shubochkin’s research ests include the study of new techniques and dopants for fabrication of silicafibers, nanopowders, and glasses.

inter-Bolesh J Skutnik Dr Bolesh J Skutnik has been with CeramOptec Groupsince 1991 He holds a BS in chemistry/math from Seton Hall University, and an

MS and PhD on theoretical physical chemistry from Yale University

Dr Skutnik has been active in fiber optics since 1979 He is inventor of HardPlastic Clad Silica optical fibers, as well as author of numerous articles andpatents on strength, optical, and radiation behavior of step index fibers.Cheryl A Smith Cheryl Smith is a sales engineer for CeramOptec Industries,where she is responsible for the investigation of new applications for specialtyfibers Cheryl has over 20 years of experience in sales and marketing for specialtyfiber optics and lasers

Marin Soljacˇic´ Marin Soljacic received his PhD from the physics department

at Princeton University in 2000 After that, he was a Pappalardo Fellow in thephysics department of MIT In 2003, he became a Principal Research Scientist atthe Research Lab of Electronics at MIT Since September 2005, he has been anAssistant Professor of Physics at MIT He is the recipient of the Adolph Lombmedal from the Optical Society of America (2005) His main research interestsare in photonic crystals and non-linear optics He is a co-author of 55 scientificarticles and is a co-author of 14 patents

Kanishka Tankala Dr Kanishka Tankala has been the VP of Operations atNufern since 2000, and involved in the development and commercialization ofspecialty fibers and fiber laser subassemblies Prior to joining Nufern, he wasTechnical Manager at Lucent Specialty Fiber and a scientist at SpecTran Cor-poration, where he developed a wide range of specialty fibers, including rareearth-doped double-clad fibers and polarization maintaining fibers He receivedhis MS and PhD from Pennsylvania State University in metals science andengineering He received his BE in metallurgy from the Indian Institute ofScience and BSc (Hons) in physics from Delhi University, India

Burak Temelkuran Burak Temelkuran was born in Turkey, 1971 He receivedhis BS (1994), MS (1996), and PhD (2000) degrees in physics from BilkentUniversity of Turkey He received ‘‘New Focus Student Award’’ in 1999 Heworked as a Postdoctoral Associate at the MIT Research Laboratory ofElectronics and Department of Materials Science and Engineering (2000–2002)where he became a research scientist (2002) He joined Omniguide Inc in 2003,where he is currently employed as a Senior Optical Physicist He has been amember of OSA since 1998 His research interests include photonic band gapmaterials and fibers

Limin Tong Dr Limin Tong received his PhD degree in material science andengineering from Zhejiang University in 1997 After four years of assistant andassociate professorship in the Department of Physics in Zhejiang Universityand another three years as a visiting scholar in the Division of Engineering andApplied Science at Harvard University, he joined the Department of OpticalEngineering at Zhejiang University in 2004 and is currently a professor of opticalengineering Dr Tong’s research area includes nanophotonics and fiber opticdevices.

Anthony Toussaint Anthony Toussaint is the Vice President of Research andDevelopment at DSM Desotech Dr Toussaint has been with DSM Desotechsince 1997, where he has held several positions in R&D working primarily in thedevelopment of coatings, inks, and matrix materials for fiber optics He received

a PhD in chemical engineering from University College London, England and anMBA from Northwestern University’s Kellogg School of Management.Liming Wang Liming Wang received a PhD degree in optics in 1990 from theChinese Academy of Sciences in China He then carried on his scientific andengineering career in nonlinear optics and optical materials at the ChineseAcademy of Sciences (China, 1991–1993), RIKEN and NIRIN (Japan, 1993–1998), and The University of Chicago (1998–2001) In 2001, he joined KVHIndustries, Inc as a Photonics Engineer to participate in the research anddevelopment of new products, including high-speed modulators and componentsfor fiber optic gyroscopes He is an author and co-author of 60 technical papers

in refereed professional journals

Ori Weisberg Ori Weisberg is the former Applications Engineering and SystemsEngineering Group Leader at OmniGuide Inc., where he worked for six years

He received his BS degree in geophysics from Tel-Aviv University, and an MSdegree in planetary science from MIT He is a co-author of six scientific articlesand a co-inventor of eight patents He currently resides near Tel-Aviv, Israel.Olaf Ziemann Professor Olaf Ziemann has been the Scientific Director of thePOF-AC at the Nuremberg University of Applied Sciences (FH Nu¨rnberg) since

2001 Dr Ziemann studied physics at the University of Leipzig and received hisdoctorate degree at the Technical University of Ilmenau in the field of opticaltelecommunications engineering Between 1995 and March 2001, he worked inthe research center of the Deutsche Telekom (T-Nova) in the special areas ofhybrid access networks and building networks Since 1996, he has been thechairman of the Information Technology Society-Sub-committee ‘‘PolymerOptical Fibers’’ (ITG-SC 5.4.1)

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The transport of radiation through a flexible, inexpensive conduit has changed ourlives in more ways than we can imagine The outstanding success of this concept isembodied in the millions of miles of telecommunications fiber that have spannedthe earth, the seas, and utterly transformed the means by which we communicate.This has all been documented with awe over the past several decades

However, more and more, optical fibers are making an impact and seriouscommercial inroads in other fields besides communications, such as in industrialsensing, bio-medical laser delivery systems, military gyro sensors, as well asautomotive lighting and control—to name just a few—and spanned applications

as diverse as oil well downhole pressure sensors to intra-aortic catheters, to highpower lasers that can cut and weld steel The requirements imposed by the broadvariety of these new applications have resulted in the evolution of a new subset ofcustom-tailored optical fibers commonly known as ‘‘specialty fibers,’’ whichhave their material and structure properties modified to render them with newproperties and characteristics

Specialized fibers are increasingly being used to manipulate the guided lightwithin the fiber and to couple light of different wavelengths into and out of thefiber in telecommunications and sensing applications The field of specialtyoptical fibers calls on the expertise and skills of a broad set of different discip-lines: materials science, ceramic engineering, optics, electrical engineering, phys-ics, polymer chemistry, and several others

There are three fundamental aspects that one can engineer to develop

or, alternatively, by introducing new properties such as lasing capability,

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fluorescence, enhanced strain or temperature sensitivity, Brillouin effect cient, and many others.

coeffi-Waveguide design was probably the first design parameter exploited and theone that led the way to define single versus multimode fibers Nowadays wave-guide design is more complex and has resulted in the design of specialty fibersthat range from fibers with more than one guiding core to those based on oneand two dimensional photonic crystal structures

A prevalent characteristic and common feature in many popular commercialspecialty fibers is their coatings Due to the diverse set of applications anddifferent environmental conditions to which fibers must be subjected to, one ofthe most common tailored properties of specialty fibers tends to be their coating.This has resulted in the commercial availability of a number of different coatedfibers ranging from high temperature polyimides to hermetic carbon coatings.However, more and more, specialty coatings are being designed with specificsensing or actuation purposes and not solely for environmental or mechanicalprotection of the fiber Coatings can enhance fiber sensitivity and selectivity to anumber of physical and bio-chemical measurands: i.e., humidity, specific hydro-carbons, biochemical agents, electromagnetic fields, etc

Although many specialty optical fibers were originally developed for andspun-off from the optical telecommunications industry, their present demandand design are primarily governed by the special needs and particular specifica-tions imposed by fiber optic sensors and photonic components Hence, as theneed for optical fiber sensors and specialized components increases, so too willthe demand for specialty fibers Clear examples of this situation are fiber amp-lifiers and fiber Bragg gratings Fiber amplifiers require different dopant com-positions and guiding structures, while fiber gratings required photosensitivefibers and mode cladding suppressing designs to facilitate their performance.However, the field of specialty fibers is not without its hurdles One of themost problematic issues is the fact that specialty fibers tend to be a niche marketand, as the name implies, a specialty item This means that the volume demandsare small when compared to their telecommunications cousins Developmenttime and cost are significant in the fabrication of a new, custom fiber Thedevelopment cost per meter of produced fiber is typically $100–1,000 Therefore,unless the application has a significant market and volume demand, many end-users desist in their attempts to have custom-made fibers As a result, the overallspecialty fiber market tends to be very fragmented and much smaller in size whencompared to the regular telecommunications fiber business At present, theoverall worldwide market for all specialty fibers is in excess of $150 millionand growing Nevertheless, one fundamental aim of the specialty fiber industrythat must be maintained is to offer custom tailoring

Although by no means exhaustive, it is the purpose of this volume to provideinsight into the many types of specialty fibers that are novel with respect to

materials, fiber design, and application As much as it was practical, we tried tocover as many of the most common and useful specialty fiber types as possible.

In a similar way, we strove to provide a balanced and broad coverage of thematerial by ensuring the participation of top experts in the field and from theleading research groups and commercial specialty fiber manufacturers Much toour disappointment, and not for lack of effort, it was not possible to obtain anycontribution to this volume from Corning

In order to present a comprehensive overview of the different specialty fibertypes, as well as to help support some of their common physics and fundamen-tals, the first six chapters deal with optical fiber technology fundamentals andmarket considerations The driving forces behind fiber development are eco-nomic, technological, and scientific, and certainly, without an enormouseconomic incentive, fibers would not have become so ubiquitous It is appropriatethen, that we begin first with a review of the driving factors that have helpeddevelop and grow the specialty fiber industry, and the market opportunities thatmay arise from novel technical advances and the diverse commercial applicationsthat seek these fibers, as discussed in Chapter 1 Any such volume as proposedhere, that in some sense must be self-contained, should certainly carry theintroduction of light-guiding principles and fundamental aspects of fiber designwhich are described in Chapter 2, as well as an overview of the various fiberfabrication techniques employed (Chapter 3) To address the fiber’s protectionissues, Chapter 4 discusses coating materials and processes What are the char-acteristics and limitations of fiber coatings? These range from standard coatingsfor telecommunications fibers, to low index polymers for double-clad fibers.Rounding out this group is Chapter 5, which covers some of the newer, morespecialized, single-mode fibers for telecommunications applications such as theultra-low OH fibers, dispersion flattened, and dispersion compensating fibers.Sensing applications utilizing optical fibers, often times have called for eso-teric and non-conventional geometries of single-mode fibers such as dual core,multi-core or exocentric core fibers Other applications have seen the use offibers with side-holes, embedded metal electrodes or capillary tube holes Thismyriad of different specialty single-mode fibers are discussed in Chapter 6.Only rare earth–doped elements can lase in an amorphous host, and rareearth–doped fibers appear in a variety of important applications (Chapter 7).The fortuitous concurrence of loss in a silica fiber with the amplification in the1.5 micron region for erbium, has essentially given us wide-band telecommuni-cations systems that span the globe The other most striking example of anapplication of a rare earth–doped fiber laser is that of the high power Yb laser,with over 1 kW of optical power Polarization maintaining (PM) fibers are moredifficult to fabricate than fibers that are circularly symmetric The highest degree

of optical anisotropy is obtained through the insertion of stress rods (PANDA)and anisotropic doping (Bowtie) Such fibers are important for many special