Selected Contemporary Challenges of Ageing Policy Tomczyk Klimczuk DOI 10.24917.9788380840911

Abstract: The idea of active ageing has become one of the most influential perspectives in modern gerontology, social work, and social policy.. This paper discusses factors that helped

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Klimczuk, Andrzej (Ed.); Tomczyk, Łukasz (Ed.)

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Selected Contemporary Challenges of Ageing Policy

Czech-Polish-Slovak Studies in Andragogy and Social Gerontology, No VII

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Department of Social Pedagogy and Andragogy PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF CRACOW

Editors:

Łukasz Tomczyk Andrzej Klimczuk

SELECTED CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES OF AGEING POLICY

Kraków 2017

CZECH-POLISH-SLOVAK STUDIES IN ANDRAGOGY AND SOCIAL GERONTOLOGY PART VII

Webpage: www.gerontolodzy.wordpress.com

Reviewers:

doc Mgr Miroslav Dopita, Ph.D – Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci doc PaedDr Dana Egerová, Ph.D – Západočeská univerzita

doc Mgr Petr Novotný, Ph.D – Masarykova Univerzita v Brne

prof UP dr hab Andrzej Ryk – Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny w Krakowie

dr Tanja Agleitner Sagadin – Alma Mater Europaea, Maribor

doc PhDr Jaroslav Veteška, Ph.D – Univerzita Karlova v Praze

Text design: Andrzej Klimczuk, Łukasz Tomczyk

Cover design: Studio Grafiki i DTP Grafpa, www.grafpa.pl

Print office: fotoidruk.pl

Suggested Citation: Tomczyk, Ł., & Klimczuk, A (Eds.) (2017)

Selected Contemporary Challenges of Ageing Policy Kraków:

Uniwersytet Pedagogiczny w Krakowie DOI 10.24917/9788380840911

© Katedra Pedagogiki Społecznej i Andragogiki

UNIWERSYTET PEDAGOGICZNY W KRAKOWIE

Licence: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0)

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Contents

INTRODUCTION 5

JAROSLAVA HASMANOVÁ MARHÁNKOVÁ

Seductive Solutions, Inspiration, Easy-to-Remember Phrases, and Ambiguity: Why Is the Idea of Active Ageing so Successful? 7

VALENTINA HLEBEC, TATJANA RAKAR

Ageing Policies in Slovenia: Before and After “Austerity” 27

RŪTA BRAZIENĖ

Age and Workplace Discrimination in Lithuania 53

MAGDALENA LESZKO, BEATA BUGAJSKA

The Evaluation of Employment Policies for Older Adults in the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia 69

ANGELIKA FELSKA

Folk High School as an Educational Alternative for Older Adults

……… 89

ERIK SELECKÝ

Organization of International Educational Activities at the

Universities of the Third Age 103

LĪGA RASNAČA, ENDIJA REZGALE-STRAIDOMA

Intergenerational Cultural Programs for Older People in term Care Institutions: Latvian Case 189

Long-DOGA BASAR SARIIPEK, SEYRAN GÜRSOY ÇUHADAR Implementation of a “Self-Sufficient Ageing” Policy and Possible Challenges: Case of Turkey 221

Introduction

This volume—“Selected Contemporary Challenges of Aging Policy”—is the most international of all published monographs from the series “Czech-Polish-Slovak Studies in Andragogy and Social Gerontology.” Among the scholars trying to grasp the nuances and trends of social policy, there are diverse perspectives, resulting not only from the extensive knowledge of the authors on the systematic approach to the issue of supporting older people but also from the grounds of the represented social gerontology schools In the texts of Volume VII interesting are both distinct and coherent elements presenting the role of local, regional and global policies in the prism of the countries from which the authors originate: the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Slovakia, Italy, Turkey, and the United States

The chapters show a wealth of methodological approaches

to the perception of social policy and its tools In the texts there are issues related to the idea of active ageing, discrimination against older people in the workplace, comparability of solutions friendly to employment of older adults in the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia as well as focused on the importance of educational forms (universities of the third age, senior clubs, folk high schools, and other non-formal solutions) determining an active life in old age

This monograph also attempted to answer the question regarding how to transfer the idea of intergenerational learning into the realm of practice This issue complements the chapter on the implementation of intergenerational programs in institutions providing long-term care support The book also outlines a public policy on ageing in the perspective of the changes over the last few decades (Slovenia) and the case demonstrating solutions to accelerate self-reliance as a key to active ageing (Turkey)

We hope that seventh volume of our series will be an intellectual stimulus for further international research on change in social policy and will contribute to the dissemination of best practices as well as contribute to positive social change

Łukasz Tomczyk Andrzej Klimczuk

Suggested Citation: Hasmanová Marhánková, J (2017) Seductive Solutions, Inspiration, Easy-to-Remember Phrases, and Ambiguity: Why Is the Idea of

Active Ageing so Successful? In Ł Tomczyk & A Klimczuk (Eds.), Selected

Contemporary Challenges of Ageing Policy (7-25) Kraków: Uniwersytet

Pedagogiczny w Krakowie Doi: 10.24917/9788380840911.1

JAROSLAVA HASMANOVÁ

Seductive Solutions, Inspiration, Remember Phrases, and Ambiguity: Why Is the

Easy-to-Idea of Active Ageing so Successful?

Abstract: The idea of active ageing has become one of the most

influential perspectives in modern gerontology, social work, and social policy This paper discusses factors that helped to establish active ageing as a successful theoretical concept that has significantly influenced contemporary social representations of ageing and has a practical impact on social work and policy The perspective of the philosophy of social science is employed to explain what makes the idea of active ageing so attractive despite the remaining confusions concerning what “activity” and “ageing actively” means The paper aims to answer the following question: What makes the concept of active ageing so successful? It draws upon the work of Murray Davis (1986) and her insight into the key aspects that make sociological theory “seductive.” The paper analyzes in what ways the concept of active ageing fulfills the specific features that, according to Davis, determine the success of social theories Simultaneously, the paper critically evaluates the ways the idea of active ageing is translated into ageing policy The case of Czech Republic is used to illustrate the problematic aspect

1

Jaroslava Hasmanová Marhánková, Department of Sociology, University of West Bohemia, Czech Republic, jmarhan@kss.zcu.cz

of active ageing policies as well as the specific rhetoric that makes the idea of active ageing so attractive for a broad spectrum of disciplines as well as for social policy

Key words: Active Ageing, Policy Ideas, Sociological Theory Introduction

Very few such influential concepts as active ageing are likely to be found in current social gerontology and other related fields The term “active ageing” has earned its strong position as the basis for the vast spectrum of issues related to the lives of an older generation At the same time, it has become an important slogan predominant in the social policies of (not only) ageing Europe Significant attention is paid to the idea of active ageing in the social science, whether in theoretical studies discussing the numerous definitions and limits (for example, Boudiny, 2012; Moulaert & Biggs, 2012; Walker, 2002, 2008) or empirical studies mapping the diverse dimensions of active ageing in the lives of seniors (e.g., Kuchařová, 2002, Petrová Kafková, 2013; Vidovićová, 2005) The combination of the noun “senior” and the adjective “active” is becoming a (post)modern incantation for representations of ageing It is also becoming an increasingly visible expression of an idealized lifestyle in older age deserving support and value The European Union (EU) declared 2012 to be European Year for Active Ageing and Solidarity between Generations In the report on the decision, the year was highlighted as being the culmination of long-term (and still ongoing) efforts to support active ageing at all levels of social life (European Commission, 2010, p 3) In a similar vein, the Czech National Program of Preparation for Ageing for the period 2003–

2007, defines active ageing as the main priority (in the current version of the document the term has been replaced by “positive ageing,” which, however, rather synonymously refers to the original concept)

These examples represent some of many indicators of a successful campaign for the concept of active ageing in gerontology, social policy, and media representations The roots of the popularity of the idea of active ageing go back to the 1990s

when the World Health Organization (WHO) began to use the term in their policies systematically Active ageing takes up the idea of successful ageing (Rowe & Kahn, 1997), and later also the idea of productive ageing (Bass, Caro & Chen, 1993), which were previously developed mainly in the United States Similarly, to the idea of active ageing, these concepts are also based on the idea of

a “suitable” form of ageing, where its stages can be identified and the subsequent desirable ones supported Although these concepts can emphasize different aspects, their use always includes certain common principles associated with the social significance of ageing The effort to cast doubt about the myth of non-productive ageing is becoming a compelling motive In this regard, active ageing follows the tradition of all the concepts mentioned above Although terms successful ageing, healthy ageing or positive ageing usually do not act as synonyms in gerontological discussions, and differing adjectives before the word “ageing” are,

to a significant extent, also a response to the insufficiency and implicit exclusivity of any efforts to define a “suitable” vision of ageing, they, such as the concept of active ageing itself, work on the presumption of a relationship between activity and satisfactory ageing, and are based on similar principles (Daatland, 2005)

In this chapter, the phrase “idea of active ageing” is used to refer to a specific way of seizing ageing which follows the activity theory (e.g., Havighurst, 1961) that urge to newly re-define social significances associated with ageing and the place of older people

in society Within such approach, various forms of activity are established as the path to healthy and satisfying ageing This conceptualization is closely related to an active lifestyle and is presented as universally suitable for everybody The phrase

“active ageing policies” refers to political strategies or social programs which, through arrangements, endeavor to put the idea

of active ageing into practice

It is striking that, despite its current popularity, it is surprisingly difficult to find a clear and comprehensive interpretation of the term “active ageing.” A rather wide range of possible definitions hides behind the term “active ageing” (or

“active old age”) In fact, the WHO presents active ageing as a lifelong project that does not primarily refer to physical activity as

such, rather to ensure the possibility of participation in social affairs in all phases of life (WHO, 2002) In this conception, active ageing does not concern only individual lifestyles of older people and their physical or work activities but also emphasizes other dimensions of active engagement of older persons in the family, the community, and public activities Thus, “activity” as perceived

by the WHO is a much wider term mainly associated with efforts

to improve the conditions of the lives of older citizens In a similar vein, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) provides a broad definition of active ageing that refers to “the capacity of people, as they grow older, to lead productive lives in society and economy This means that people can make flexible choices in the way they spend time over life—in learning, in work, in leisure, in care-giving” (OECD, 1998, p 84)

In practice, and primarily in political agendas, however, the term

“active ageing” acquires rather narrower meanings For example, a paper with the title “New Paradigm in Ageing Policy” published

on the web page of European Commission states that: “in practice means adopting healthy lifestyles, working longer, retiring later and being active after retirement” (European Commission, 1999) Similar variability in approaches to active ageing can also

be found in the social sciences; Avramov & Mašková (2003, p 24) define active ageing as the “realization of the active lives of older people in the diverse domains of their personal, family, social and professional lives.” According to them, active ageing especially refers to maintaining work activity in old age, active engagement in family life (in the form of helping family members

or housework), the active engagement in community life (especially in the form of volunteering) and active use of free time Alan Walker (2006), one of the most significant propagators

of active ageing, perceives it as a multi-dimensional strategy that interconnects individual and social levels At the social level, active ageing includes challenges in the fields of employment, health, social inclusion, education, and transportation accessibility

On the individual level, people have, according to Walker, “a duty

to take advantage of lifelong learning and continuous training opportunities and to promote their own health and well-being throughout the life course” (Walker, 2006, p 86) As is apparent

from the previous definition, active ageing is, in many ways, a normative vision exhorting a specific lifestyle and approach to health It is based on the assumption that “active life is positively associated with other ethically highly appreciated values such as personal autonomy, enhanced health, life satisfaction and quality

of life in general” (Avramov & Mašková, 2003, p 24) All definitions of the concept of active ageing (as well as other terms) work with the notion of individuals who are actively striving to direct their ageing conditions towards the least possible dependence on the social system or other people (Neilson, 2006) The recapitulation of various conceptualizations and definitions of active ageing could continue for a long time The goal of this paper, however, is not to discuss the various modifications of active ageing or the limitations of these different approaches This paper strives to explain the popularity of this concept and its related variations in the form of positive ageing, successful ageing and healthy ageing in the social sciences, and in social policy (despite the remaining confusions concerning what age actively means) The aim is, therefore, to provide some possible answers to the question of which factors are behind the success of active ageing as a theoretical concept and form of the social policy strategy The following analysis is inspired by the work of Murray Davis (1986), who analyzed the roots of the success of classical social theories This paper discusses how and

to what extent the idea of active ageing meets the criteria which, according to Davis, ensure public interest and the long-term popularity of “classic” social theories

Active Ageing as a Successful Social Theory

The works of Murray Davis (1986), focusing on the identification

of the common features of successful social theories that have gained a place in social sciences canon, represent one of the main inspirations for this paper In her work, Davis neither assess the quality of these theories, nor does she strive to map the criteria of

“good” social theory, but she reflects on what distinguished theories that have gained significant attention from theories that have not

The second main inspiration represents the paper by Kathy Davis (2008), who applies to the arguments of her namesake onto the analysis of the success of the concept of intersectionality which, particularly in gender studies, represents one of the most influential approaches to the study of experiences of exclusion Her analysis shows that the work of Murray Davis has the potential to bring understanding to the success of not just classical sociological theories, but also current influential concepts This paper follows their argument and map if and how the idea of active ageing meets the criteria of a successful theory as defined

by Davis (1986) and, therefore, also tries to answer the question of where the roots of its success in (not only) social sciences lie

Changes, Risks, and Seductive Solutions

The success of a social theory is, according to Davis (1986), to a significant extent based on its attractiveness A social theory’s ability to adequately reflect the world around us is not enough to ensure its success and long-lasting popularity It is primarily their seductiveness that, according to Davis, elevates the classical theories above those that wither away In her analysis, she shows that all these canonical theories follow a specific form of rhetoric Their first characteristic is that they begin their argument with reference to something that appeals to the wider audience The success of a theory, according to Davis, however, does not only lie

in the identification of an interesting topic A theory is mainly becoming interesting to a wider audience at the moment when a fear associated with a threat to something precious and close to the audience is addressed Such a presentation of a problem provides a context that becomes crucial for managing public concern when addressing the given question It shows how far-reaching changes and significant processes are seen and how these interfere with the organization of society and the individual lives of people At the same time, a successful theory offers hope in the form of reasonable proposals on how to deal with these changes and processes or, at least, how to learn to live with them (Davis, 1986) What is it that is precious and close to everybody that is addressed by the idea of active ageing; which fears does it emphasize and simultaneously offer solutions to? The answer is

obvious The idea of active ageing concerns something that is a part of life for everyone of us It addresses issues dealing with ageing and preserving dignity and independence in old age In its simplified interpretations, the theory of active ageing provides answers to the question of how to reach healthy and satisfactory old age A particular (and identical) rhetoric can be identified in the majority of documents formulating the vision of active ageing policies The formulation of such policies starts with the references to statistical data on an increasing proportion of older adults in the population (e.g., WHO, 2002, pp 6–11; European Commission, 1999) These data represent a necessary prelude showing a vision of a society which will, at least in some respects, never be the same as today A document published by WHO (2002, p 6) points out that this change is “one of the humanity’s greatest triumphs It is also one of our greatest challenges.” Even though this challenge is also formulated in positive terms, such as opportunity, it remains a risk for society Opportunity can be achieved, but also missed—the idea of risk is, therefore, an integral part of the formulation of active ageing policies

Projections of population growth, which are part of the discussion on active ageing represent a symbolic risk horizon which does not necessarily have to be threatening if managed correctly The concept of risk is associated with the modern concept of believing in the possibility of controlling one’s own future, or at least the ability to change it by one’s own actions (Zinn, 2008, pp 3–4) So, the foundation of the risk is not what is happening, rather what could happen The threat is not contained

in a moment or process itself, but more likely in its poor management As WHO argues (2002, p 6): “countries can afford

to get old if governments, international organizations and civil society enact 'active ageing' policies and programs that enhance the health, participation, and security of older citizens The time to plan and to act is now.” The idea of active ageing is becoming a tool to manage these risks and problems The discussion on active ageing does not present population ageing as a threat as such, but

as a process that can be controllable and manageable Dangers materialize in the idea of some form of future which, however, in principle can be prevented The population ageing is presented as

an inherent problem which, however, can be minimized using clearly defined politics Risks must be controlled while active ageing is presented as a preventive strategy with a universal solution

The seductive solution that the idea of active ageing offers while dealing with the risks of population ageing is based on the production of specific subjectivities “colonized” by activity and an emphasis on productivity (Moulaert & Biggs, 2012) As the Declaration on the European Year for Active Ageing and Solidarity between Generations published by the Council of the European Union (2012, p 3) states: “Demographic change can, among other things, be successfully tackled through a positive life-course approach that focuses on the potential of all generations and particularly of older age groups The action is needed to enable both women and men to remain active as workers, consumers, careers, volunteers, and citizens and to preserve the solidarity between generations.” Active ageing is presented as a lifelong project, within which individuals systematically work by themselves towards minimal dependence

on the social system and others.2 The state does, in this regard, have an empowering role rather—its task is to provide the conditions for active ageing, but the responsibility for its individual fulfillment remains in the hands of the individual (e.g., Hasmanová Marhánková, 2013, pp 57-62) For example, Active Ageing Manual (2012) and the Active Ageing Guide (2013) have been published in the Czech Republic, which, even by their titles, can be in many ways considered as an incarnation of the of manuals or guides on how to produce actively ageing subjects The Active Ageing Manual (2012), for example, appeals to its

2

The emphasis on the lifelong character of the active ageing project can be perceived as another pillar of its success The philosophy of active ageing is actually not only aimed at older adults, but presents active ageing as the result of a lifelong effort Every individual at every stage of life should, through their lifestyle and choices, strive to age actively Disciplinary practices associated with active ageing policies are, therefore, becoming a tool to manage the whole population

readers in the section Active Approach using chapters with titles such as “Move,” “Train Your Brain,” and “Meet People.” The active approach to life is also presented as a way to happy ageing, because “active people live longer, are healthier, and are more satisfied” (The Active Ageing Manual, 2012, p 47)

Active ageing call on individuals to be active with the promise of a healthier and more satisfied life At the same time, this lifestyle becomes the key to the response to the challenges associated with population ageing As stated, for example, by the Czech National Strategy for Positive Ageing for the period 2012–

2017 (2012, p 21), “the improvement of public health is closely related to economic growth and an increase in competitiveness.” Management of population through active ageing, therefore, mostly occurs through the effort to gain the potential from an increasing number of older adults Healthier, less dependent, longer working, and helpful seniors symbolizing the vision of active ageing are, in the framework of this rhetoric, also becoming the key to the solution to the economic problems associated with population ageing

Active ageing with its vision of active seniors who continuously participate in social, economical, cultural, spiritual and civic affair (WHO, 2002, p 12), adopt healthy lifestyle, work longer, retire later and are active after retirement (European Commission, 1999) and are aware of their responsibility for preparation for their own ageing through their whole life (National Program for Preparation for Old Age for the Period 2003-2007, 2003) represents a political response to demographic trends, as well as answers to the questions of how a satisfactory and happy old age should look Such vision addresses not only the fears associated with individual ageing but also the fears associated with population ageing In the same breath, it also offers guidance on how to deal with both processes

Active Ageing as an Inspiration for Specialized Research and

a Reservoir of Easy-to-Remember Phrases

The ability to open a space for specialized research and provide easy-to-remember points and phrases enabling understanding, even for those who are only marginally involved in the subject,

represent according to Davis (1986) another key characteristic of successful social theories She further suggests that: “an ambiguous theory can appeal to different—even hostile audience, allowing each subgroup to interpret the theory in congenial, if mutually incompatible, ways.” Successful theories then, on the one hand, enable specialized academic research, where a whole career can be devoted to detailed research on just one theory On the other hand, it is possible to simplify them into easy-to-understand and memorable phrases or clichés (Davis, 1986) The idea of active ageing meets this criterion fully In the framework of social sciences, active ageing opens a space for a wide range of debates There are studies striving to cope with former concepts of active, healthy, positive and successful ageing (e.g., Bass & Caro, 2001; Moody, 2001), which critically assess the limits of earlier approaches and bring progressively more concepts (and thus open space for reflection on the limitations of these new approaches for other researchers) The idea of active ageing is becoming a starting point for a growing number of empirical research testing the relationship between activity in old age and life satisfaction and/or health (e.g., Nimrod & Adoni, 2006; Litwin & Shiovitz-Ezra, 2006), or mapping out various dimensions of senior lifestyles (e.g., Bútorová et al., 2013; Petrová Kafková, 2013) The concept of active ageing is becoming a part

of a broad myriad of disciplines It has given rise to specialized analytical tools, such as the Active Ageing Index established by the European Commission and the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), the aim of which is to

“identify areas in which different policies and programs can promote the contribution and potential of older people” and “help

in identifying priority areas of policy development in the near future” (Zaidi & Stanton, 2015, p 4) The Active Ageing Index is

a foundation for the comparison of individuals (i.e., the higher the index, the higher the level of active ageing) and individual countries (for example, in 2014 the Czech Republic was in eleventh place among the EU countries in the rankings of active ageing) The index aims to enable the comparison and identification of areas in which countries can work better on active ageing in their own populations

The narrative connecting activity with the path to satisfying and healthy ageing has also played a significant role in the expansion of the field of gerontology, and in strengthening the position of social work in relation to older adults (Green, 2009; Katz, 2000) This narrative established “activity” as an important intellectual and professional capital Active ageing does not only offer ethical frameworks for contemplating ageing but also becomes a source of specific instructions on how to fulfill this positive vision Activity “administration,” “management,” and

“mediation” have become expert capital (also compare Katz,

1996, 2000) and one of the most important frameworks referred to

by the institutions and actors providing social services for older people when defining their roles and importance As Katz (2000) points out, management by activity became an important way how

to measure the resourcefulness and productivity of professionals working with older persons Reference to activity became the vital part of professional vocabularies and a way how to embed the everyday life in old age into “a measurable behavior whose significance connect the worlds of older people to the largest expertise” (Katz, 2000) For example, in the Czech Republic, the relatively recently enacted Social Services Act (108/2006) institute the “process of activation” as an essential part of the work of all institutions providing services for older adults This Act established “Strengthening life activation” as one of the crucial criteria for the definition of a social worker’s job (Social Services Act 108/2006, § 116) Within this approach, activity becomes a measurable (and reportable) aspect and, at the same time, a tool connecting professional experts with the everyday lives of older persons In this regard, discussions on active ageing also play a major role in the process of construction of the professional identity of the social services and to a significant extent help to delimit the purpose and content of institutional programs for older people

“Active ageing” is also becoming a simple motto or slogan which easily attracts attention The phrase “active ageing” evokes vision and dynamics It is easily translatable into catchy phrases

In the Czech Republic, the phrase “active ageing” is currently becoming a necessary context to which almost all projects aimed

at older people must somehow relate So, on the one hand, active ageing opens space for detailed academic research At the same time, however, it offers easily understandable phrases which extend its popularity well beyond the academic sphere The use of these phrases often becomes a mantra, repeated without the need

to define its meaning further For that matter, even the National Program of Preparation for Ageing for the period 2008–2012 for the Czech Republic, which defines active ageing as its priority, does not provide a definition of the phrase anywhere in the document It is not an exaggeration to say that a reference to active ageing is currently working almost as a compulsory pass into the arena of grant procedures for projects aimed at the older generation

The Power of Ambiguity

According to Davis (1986), ambiguity is paradoxically the third crucial characteristic of social theory that ensures its success In social sciences, according to Davis, ambiguity is not a sign of failure but can lay the foundations for the future popularity of a theory (Davis 1986, p 296) Successful social theories are, therefore, successful due to the fact that they do not offer clear answers but, on the contrary, open space for further debate and research (Davis, 2008) Active ageing materializes this ambiguity

in many ways One of the characteristic features of the idea of active ageing is paradoxically an absence of the universally agreed definition of what ageing actively means Not only is there no clear definition of active ageing, but there is also no agreement on whether active ageing represents a theory, or an approach, or even something completely different “Active ageing” has been described as a process (WHO, 2002), an ability (OECD, 1998, p 84), a strategy (Walker, 2002), a concept (Avramov & Mašková, 2003; Ranzijn, 2010; Walker, 2002), a form of social politics (Ney, 2005), and a discourse (Hasmanová Marhánková, 2011) Boudiny (2013) even describes active ageing as “empty rhetoric.” Alan Walker (2002), who, to a significant extent, contributed to the establishment of this concept in social sciences, also talks about the fact that active ageing “is sometimes just a slogan used

to cover anything that seems to fit under it” (Walker, 2002, p 124)

Boudiny (2013) recognizes three basic approaches to the definition of active ageing One-dimensional approaches dominate the social politics of European countries and are distinguished by the reductionism described above They frame active ageing mainly in economic terms and equates it with the participation of older citizens in the labor market The multi-dimensional approach works with more levels of active ageing and puts the emphasis on activities beyond the labor market—mostly on actively spent free time However, as pointed out by Boudiny, this approach also often slips towards similar reductionism, with its tendency to distinguish between passively and actively spent free time Such a distinction not only ignores the plurality of the subjective interpretation of what activity means, but also largely excludes certain groups from being described as actively ageing (for example, due to worsening health condition, which can prevent individuals from carrying out those activities which are, in the framework of this rhetoric, considered “truly” active) The third approach does not assess active ageing only through activities and the behavior of individuals but approaches it mainly as a life situation enabling people to continue to be independent and providing sufficient conditions for personal development This approach, however, makes active ageing inaccessible to that already facing dependence and deteriorating health (Boudiny, 2013) Despite these problems with various conceptualizations of active ageing and its criticism, many authors remain optimistic as

to its potential and benefit for the politics of ageing

The ambiguity of the definition of active ageing is, to a significant extent, based on the various definitions of the word

“activity.” While, in the framework of the active ageing policy, activity is mainly perceived as a tool to preserve economic productivity and independence (remaining in the labor market for

as long as possible, lifelong education, maintaining an active lifestyle and, therefore, minimizing the risk of dependence on others), older persons themselves often perceive activity as the goal itself (Hasmanová Marhánková, 2011) or, in a much broader sense, as a tool for structuring leisure time and a means of relating

to the world around them (Dyk et al., 2013) Bowling’s (2008) study shows that older people most often perceive active ageing as

a synonym for maintaining physical health, leisure, and social activities

The ambivalence of active ageing and its openness to various translations is also illustrated by the way it is approached within different disciplines and institutions While in the framework of social policy promoted by international organizations and by national strategies, active ageing is presented

as an individual lifelong reflexive project where individuals take responsibility for their own ageing through their lifestyles (see above), approaches dominating in the field of social work present activity as a tool (mostly) in the hands of professionals This approach to activity is apparent in the “process of activation” that represents a crucial aspect of the revised Social Services Act (108/2006) in the Czech Republic The idea that one of the tasks

of social workers should be to activate older clients implicitly ascribe the actor role to social workers—those who activate—while the clients are those being activated As stated in, for example, the Czech guide to Activation Approaches to Older People, “older people’s activity can be perceived as a certain final product of the activation of older persons” (Müller, 2006, p 37) From this perspective, being active is mostly presented as the result of the actions of social workers and specialized institutions

An unclear definition of what active ageing means does not necessarily have to be perceived as a weakness of this perspective

On the contrary, ambiguity has become its strength and the key to its unprecedented success, especially in the context of social policies Active ageing is becoming a framework that is easy to mobilize for various ranges of social politics The secret of the success of active ageing paradoxically lies in the fact that, thanks

to its ambiguity, it can be translated to suit the needs of diverse individuals and institutions

Conclusion

The phrase “active ageing” (or healthy ageing, positive ageing or successful ageing) currently represent an essential framework of ageing policies and discourses on suitable forms of individual life

in old age As stated by Walker (2008), active ageing is currently becoming the leading global strategy in response to population ageing In this regard, it is appropriate to ask what lies behind the success of this concept, and what are the reasons for its current leading position This paper has attempted to outline some possible answers to these questions The idea of active ageing undoubtedly brings fundamental and, above all, welcome changes

to the ways ageing and the role of older people have traditionally been viewed However, the popularity of the idea of active ageing throughout various disciplines and its penetration into various levels of social life cannot be explained simply by the reference to its superior ability to capture the experience of ageing Its privileged position is also based on its specific rhetorical program, carrying those criteria identified by Davis (1986) as a foundation for the “attractiveness” and, therefore, the success of theories that have entered the history of the social sciences Similarly, to these theories, the idea of active ageing is also framed by the discourse

of a fundamental change in society and the resulting uncertainty and risks The positive representations of ageing, which also include the image of active old age, form hand in hand with discussions pointing out the increasing number of older adults in the population as a negative phenomenon According to Walker (2010), it was the very criticism of the welfare state fueled by notions of population ageing as a threat that gave rise to the “new ageing politics,” with active ageing as its flagship concept Demographic trends associated with population ageing draw attention to older people as a group with a specific social position and role Active ageing is to a significant extent the product of the effort to use the potential of the growing number of older citizens (mainly at the labor market), which today’s society cannot afford

to “waste.”

At the same time, active ageing represents a theory that is multi-layered enough to enable different disciplines and actors with different professional degrees to work with this idea It opens space for extremely specialized research, and simultaneously is becoming a tool for practical social politics Active ageing is becoming a buzzword—a concept that is unprecedentedly popular, even though there is very little agreement on its actual definition

(Davis, 2008) As I have tried to outline above, the ambiguity of the idea of active ageing is one of the keys to its success Its openness to various, often contradictory, interpretations paradoxically strengthens the privileged position of active ageing

in different social spheres Moreover, it is the very fact that different actors and institutions can use different translations of active ageing for various purposes that should be perceived as the foundation for its unprecedented success

Acknowledgements

This paper is based on research funded by the Czech Science Foundation (grant no 13-09399P)

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Pedagogiczny w Krakowie Doi: 10.24917/9788380840911.2

Ageing Policies in Slovenia: Before and After

“Austerity”

Abstract: Similarly, to other European countries, Slovenia is

facing ageing of the population The European Year for Active Ageing and Solidarity between Generations in 2012 (EY2012) and the recent economic crisis have influenced social policy in the area

of ageing and care for older people While the EY2012 has raised awareness about issues related to the ageing of the population, the economic crisis after 2008 has put pressure on the welfare system The purpose of the chapter is to examine the influences of the EY2012 together with the changes in social policies, i.e., austerity measures, which were the results of economic crisis We analyzed the dominant trends in the development of the care for older people (including both institutional care and home care services), starting from 1992, when Slovenia gained independence, until the recent economic crisis We have confirmed the main thesis, claiming that the EY2012 had beneficial effects in raising the awareness about population ageing in general population, but was not followed by the policy development, which would be useful

for older people Moreover, the social policy development was marked by results of austerity measures, which significantly worsen the quality of life of older people and their families

Key words: Austerity, Care Services, Economic Crisis,

is to identify the dominant trends in the development of the care for older people (including both institutional care and home care services), starting from 1992 when Slovenia gained independence until the recent economic crisis We will focus on the changes in policies for older people with the introduction of the austerity measures and how this affected the quality of life of older people

in Slovenia regardless awareness process raised by the EY2012

We will examine the development and changes in the ageing policies in Slovenia within the recent policy discourse of the main trends in welfare policies such as de-familialization and re-familialization (Blum et al., 2014), individual responsibility, increased selectivity (Taylor-Gooby et al., 2017) and delegated governance (Morgan & Campbell, 2011; Greve, 2015)

The first part of the chapter will give a short overview of the ageing policies after the Slovenia independence in 1992 The second part will focus on the description of the main changes that were introduced with the new social legislation and austerity laws

as a consequence of the global economic crisis The next two sections will present the data on the main trends in institutional care and home care and the policy issues with an emphasis on the development of welfare mix in the shared responsibility of the state, market, and the community (focusing on the role of civil society organizations and the family) Particular attention will be

paid to the issue how these policy changes have affected the social situation of older persons and their quality of life Our main thesis

is that despite the special attention to ageing issues and ageing policies advocated through the EY2012 those policies in Slovenia were not sheltered from “austerity measures” and retrenchment trend was evident in all areas and has significantly affected the

social situation and quality of life of older people in Slovenia

Ageing Policies in the Framework of the Slovene Welfare System Before and after the Crisis

Slovenia is a small country that was once part of Yugoslavia and the established socialist regime Through the specific circumstances of the development of former socialist societies, a particular type of welfare system3 evolved: a state-socialist welfare system, in which the state had the dominant role The state was the owner, financier, and controller of all institutions and organizations that provided services or paid for the provision of social protection and welfare of its citizens An important fact regarding the development of the Slovene welfare system during the transition period in the 1990s is that, contrary to some other post-socialist countries, Slovenia did not experience a so-called

“welfare gap” (see Kolarič et al., 2009, 2011) Hence, in the context of the transition from socialist to post-socialist society, the Slovene welfare system went through gradual reforms and constituted as a dual model, combined with elements that are the basic constitutive elements on one side of the conservative-corporate On the other side, social-democratic welfare system First of all, the compulsory social insurance systems (including old age), which are based on social partnership and are as such the basic constitutive element of a conservative-corporate welfare

3

The welfare system we understand as a concept that embraces not only the institutions, programs and measures with which the state provides social protection and social well-being to its citizens, but also those evolving and functioning according to the logic of the market, as well as those operating within the domain of civil society, the community and the family (Kolarič et al., 2009, 2011)

system, are in Slovenia the primary instrument for the provision of social protection for employees and their family members On the other hand, the strong public and state sector maintained the status

of the main service provider of all types of services to which all citizens are equally entitled Gradually, a complementary relationship between public and state and the non-profit voluntary sector was established, as well as state support for the informal sector The characteristics mentioned above are distinctive elements of the social-democratic welfare system (Kolarič et al.,

2009, 2011)

In terms of services for older people, the system in Slovenia had three components: the public sector, the informal sector and the “grey” sector In the public sector, a well-developed and regionally dispersed network of public (state) organizations and institutions provided formally organized professional services, including numerous institutions for the care of older people (nursing homes) The second sector—the informal sector—provided services that were lacking in the public sector They were provided by close and extended family members, friends, and neighbors This voluntary and unpaid provision of services, largely based on strong value orientations, normative expectations and emotional closeness within informal networks (Nagode et al., 2004; Filipovič Hrast, & Hlebec, 2008, 2009; Hlebec & Filipovič Hrast, 2009; Hlebec, 2009, 2010), was not supported by policy measures The last sector, that is, the grey sector (Kolarič, 1992; Kolarič et al., 2009) comprised employees in public institutions and organizations who were offering services for direct (illegal) payment and was tolerated by the state for its compensatory role Hence, at the beginning of the transition, Slovenia built its care policies for older people on a well-developed tradition of institutional care (Nagode et al., 2004; Mali, 2009) On the other hand, community care services, such as home care, day care, and others have developed only after the transition The development

of community care was relatively supported in the policy documents For example, the National Program on Social Protection 2006–2010, the Program for Development of Care for Older People in the Field of Social Protection until 2005, and the Strategy of Care for Older Adults 2006–2010

The National Social Protection Strategy by 2005 and the Resolution on the National Social Protection Program 2006–2010 defined new forms of mobile assistance, day care centers, care in a family other than the birth family and care in sheltered housing for

older people The Social Security Act (MDDSZ, 2006a;

Amendment to the Social Security Act, 1992) defined services for social prevention, and services intended for eliminating social distress and difficulties (first social aid, personal help, help to the family, institutional care, guidance, protection and employment under special conditions, help to workers in enterprises, institutions and at other employers) One measure related to care for older people is the possibility for a family member to become a family attendant with the right to partial payment for lost income

at the minimum wage level or to a proportional part of the payment for lost income in the case of part-time work (Hlebec, 2010)

Policy measures since 1991 have targeted both the development of institutional care and support for older people living at home and their careers However, the persistence of the characteristic of the previous system through “path dependency” is clearly evident in the slow development of home care services This services still cover a very small part of older people (approx 3%) while the adoption of these services by older persons currently is not growing anymore, mainly due to financial inaccessibility (Nagode et al., 2013) Flexible forms of care and support for family careers are still underdeveloped (see Filipovič Hrast & Hlebec, 2009; Mali, 2008) Adoption of a coherent long-term care act has been discussed for a decade and drafts have been prepared However, the actual adoption of such an Act is still pending

In regard to pension system the main issue throughout the period was the financial sustainability due to unfavorable demographic trend further exacerbated by the early retirement policy as a solution to solve high unemployment rates following transition of Slovenia to market economy, which placed an additional burden on the national pension system (Filipovič Hrast

& Rakar, 2015) Slovenia has the so-called pay-as-you-go pension

system that is based on three pillars (the first is compulsory, and the other two are supplementary)

Ageing Policies in Times of Economic Crisis and “Austerity” Discourse

More recently following the trends of the “Great Recession,” the well-developed welfare systems have been under significant pressures due to the recent economic crisis and demographic pressures Slovenia enjoyed strong economic growth before the crisis but faced one of the most pronounced recessions among the countries members of The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2009 The gross domestic product (GDP) growth after 2008 was negative and shows a slower recovery than in 28 European Union (EU) member states (Eurostat) On the other side, as in many other European countries, Slovenia is facing an ageing of the population The old age dependency ratio was 24.4%, in 2012, which is slightly below the EU27 average However, it is projected to rise to 57.6 % in 2060 (Eurostat) Hence, what has been in the public, policy and media arena most discussed is the sustainability of the pension system

In Slovenia, the pension reform has been highly contested, and the first proposed major reform was rejected at the referendum (in 2011) In 2012, a new reform was negotiated and adopted, increasing the retirement age, and further strengthening bonuses and maluses to stimulate labor market participation of older workers (Filipovič Hrast & Rakar, 2015)

The economic situation of older people has deteriorated since 2001, with the most affected being those aged 75+ (Kump & Stropnik, 2009; Stropnik et al., 2010; Stropnik et al., 2003) and the poverty rates among older people are high (20.5% in 2014) (Eurostat) It is therefore not surprising that evaluations of the quality of the pension system are rather negative and the average has decreased from 5.1 in 2003 to 4 in 2011 (EQLS 2003, 2011)

Since economic crisis austerity laws have been adopted in

2012,4 which froze pension indexation and pension adjustments, further affecting the living standards of older people These acts introduced temporary austerity measures with an unpredictable time limit, as they will be in force until the year that follows the year in which the economic growth exceeds 2.5% of GDP These reforms made benefits for older people and social benefits more means-tested and lowered the level of some benefits

Furthermore, besides the austerity measures introduced by the austerity laws as a direct response to the crisis, there was a major reform in welfare policies, with the adoption of the new social legislation which came into force on 1 January 2012 with two acts: the Exercise of Rights to Public Funds Act and the Financial Social Assistance Act, regulating the noncontributory social benefits The implementation of the two acts brought significant changes in the field of social benefits and subsidies For the first time the law introduced a common entry point to access all family and social benefits, it defined uniform criteria for eligibility for different benefits and for accessing income and property of households Besides including a wider definition of family income (taking property and savings into account) it also set an order in which benefits are being claimed According to the main goals of the new legislation, this was supposed to ensure a fairer distribution of social transfers and targeting the most deprived However, the data show worsening of the financial situation and well-being of some of the most vulnerable groups and among those also older people (Dremelj et al., 2013) Most important was the change in supplementary allowance that pensioners with lower pensions were eligible (also those residing

in institutional care) Now, the additional allowance is no longer granted on the basis of pension and disability rights but became a social benefit and people residing in institutional care are no

4

As a direct response to the crisis two intervention acts were adopted The first, Act on Additional Intervention Measures for 2012, came into force on 1 January 2012, the same day as the new social legislation The second, Fiscal Balance Act, came into force on 31 May 2012

longer eligible for it Consequently, the number of beneficiaries dropped dramatically by 78% between 2011 and 2012 (Trbanc et al., 2014) Furthermore, the striking drop in the number of beneficiaries can be linked to stricter conditions for accessing benefits, taking into account a broader definition of income (including property) The most important change was a state mortgage on the property of those receiving a supplementary allowance as well as social assistance recipients This relates to issue of the “take-up of benefits,” since the implemented changes resulted in “non-take-up of benefits” from older people in fear of losing their property as well as the property inheritance rights of their children Moreover, state pensions were abolished, which used to be a universal right and support for older people not eligible for insurance-based pensions Those older persons have now become dependent on social assistance and supplementary allowance, now changed to social assistance benefit, and hence dramatically reduced the number of beneficiaries (Trbanc et al., 2014)

Due to the problems with the implementation of the new social legislation and its negative impact, there were subsequent modifications of the new social legislation that came into force on January 1, 2014, and September 1, 2014 The changes involved softening of some of the access rules in terms of income and property calculations in accessing the benefits and less strict rules

in regard to property mortgage for the supplementary allowance5and social assistance beneficiaries.6 Despite the positive connotation of these improvements, this was more “make-up” changes and as shown by data did not have an effect on the increase in the number of beneficiaries (see Trbanc et al., 2016,

The return of the received social assistance benefits applies only to

beneficiaries that received social assistance for more than 12 months with the adjusted return of funds minus 12 months of the highest amounts and minus 1/3 of the monthly amounts of social assistance

The described changes in the ageing policy, which can be labeled under the trend of increased selectivity, have happened despite older people having a strong political presence, as their political party, the Democratic Party of Slovenian Pensioners (DESUS), has been part of every governing coalition since the earliest years of independence (1996) Also, the EY 2012 activities did not have any major effect on improving the position of older people or to shelter them from the major cuts in policies and benefits This could be explained by the fact that the focus of the activities was mainly on raising the awareness on active ageing and intergenerational solidarity, promoting discussions, good practices and preventing discrimination on the basis of age in general However, topics in regard to illness and disability, employment and active work were much less pronounced Very few actions were directed to policy makers (Narat et al., 2012) The activities within the EY 2012 made a good basis for further work in this area Still, in the future, the focus should be more on the concrete proposals and actual implementation of active projects (Narat et al., 2012)

In terms of the austerity measures, there were no major reforms in regard to services for older people However, in practice, a trend toward the privatization of services is evident, both in institutional services as well as home care services Hence,

a trend toward “contracting out” and delegated governance in the service provision for older people can be noticed In terms of ageing policy developments, the changes in social protection benefits for older persons and on the other in the service provision, have resulted in some more pronounced issues of the affordability

of services in institutional care as well as home care services as shown in the next section

Developments in Institutional Care

The institutional care in Slovenia is by tradition well developed Mali (2009) refers to three main periods of the development Namely, the first period before the transition was a socio-gerontological period, where nursing homes were designed as geriatric institutions focused on sick old people The period after a transition from 1991 to 2000 as a hospital model of nursing homes

where hospital-like rules of living were in use The period after

2000 as a social model of institutional care The implementation of this last model has been based on a rising number of people who have dementia and the inability of the medical model of care to provide highly individualized care In the following paragraphs, the development of institutional care will be presented in figures Data was gathered from various sources, mostly from the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia (SURS) but also from other institutions such as the Association of Social Institutions of Slovenia (SSZS), the Ministry of Labour, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities (MDDSZ) and the Social Protection Institute of the Republic of Slovenia (IRSSV) A detailed list of sources is given below each table

The number of institutions along with the number of residents has been increasing throughout the whole period, which

is in line with the demographic trends producing a greater need for institutional care as shown in Table 1 However, what is unexpected, is that in 2012 there was a decrease in the number of residents in institutional care, which could be linked to the effects

of the economic crisis and introduced austerity measures as well

as the described changes in the social legislation exacerbating the issue of the affordability of the institutional care

The average pension was raising up to 2009 as shown in Figure 1 In 2012 there was a significant drop in average pension, with a slight increase in 2013 and again dropping in 2014 and

2015 Halting of the increase in pensions and even the lowering of the level of pensions along with constant increase in the expenses for nursing homes and the decrease in the public funds from the health insurance budget (SSZS, 2016), could explain the decrease

in the number of residents due to the possible drop out from institutional care as they were no longer able to afford the services Additionally, the described changes in the social legislation in 2012 contributed to this drop, since we would expect that the lowering of the pension levels would be supplemented by municipality funds, however, this was not the case, due to take-up

of benefits gap, since the beneficiaries did not apply for them by fearing of losing their property (SSZS, 2016)

Table 1 Nursing Homes and People in Care

Old people’s homes Number of residents

Source: SURS, 2004, 2007: 2009; Association of Social Institutions of Slovenia

2009-2015 *Reported data are about the number of residential units and differs from data reported by SURS, which reports about the number of residential institutions among which some may have more than one residential unit

*Reported on December 31 of each year

The salient issue of the affordability of the institutional care exacerbated by economic crisis, the austerity measures and increased selectivity within the changes in the social legislation is also evident in Figure 2, showing the trends in the difference between users’ daily payments and average gross pension level per day

Figure 1 Average Pension