Tài liệu Science and Technology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism Second Edition pptx

Handbook on Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations, edited by Jack Rabin, Thomas Vocino, W.. Handbook of Strategic Management: Second Edition, edited by Jack Rabin, Gerald

Technology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism

Second Edition

EVAN M BERMAN

Distinguished University Professor

J William Fulbright Distinguished Scholar National Chengchi University Taipei, Taiwan

Founding Editor

JACK RABIN

1 Public Administration as a Developing Discipline, Robert T Golembiewski

2 Comparative National Policies on Health Care, Milton I Roemer, M.D.

3 Exclusionary Injustice: The Problem of Illegally Obtained Evidence,

Steven R Schlesinger

5 Organization Development in Public Administration, edited by Robert T Golembiewski

and William B Eddy

7 Approaches to Planned Change, Robert T Golembiewski

8 Program Evaluation at HEW, edited by James G Abert

9 The States and the Metropolis, Patricia S Florestano and Vincent L Marando

11 Changing Bureaucracies: Understanding the Organization before Selecting the Approach, William A Medina

12 Handbook on Public Budgeting and Financial Management, edited by Jack Rabin

and Thomas D Lynch

15 Handbook on Public Personnel Administration and Labor Relations, edited by

Jack Rabin, Thomas Vocino, W Bartley Hildreth, and Gerald J Miller

19 Handbook of Organization Management, edited by William B Eddy

22 Politics and Administration: Woodrow Wilson and American Public Administration,

edited by Jack Rabin and James S Bowman

23 Making and Managing Policy: Formulation, Analysis, Evaluation, edited by

G Ronald Gilbert

25 Decision Making in the Public Sector, edited by Lloyd G Nigro

26 Managing Administration, edited by Jack Rabin, Samuel Humes, and Brian S Morgan

27 Public Personnel Update, edited by Michael Cohen and Robert T Golembiewski

28 State and Local Government Administration, edited by Jack Rabin and Don Dodd

29 Public Administration: A Bibliographic Guide to the Literature, Howard E McCurdy

31 Handbook of Information Resource Management, edited by Jack Rabin

and Edward M Jackowski

32 Public Administration in Developed Democracies: A Comparative Study, edited by

Donald C Rowat

33 The Politics of Terrorism: Third Edition, edited by Michael Stohl

34 Handbook on Human Services Administration, edited by Jack Rabin

and Marcia B Steinhauer

36 Ethics for Bureaucrats: An Essay on Law and Values, Second Edition, John A Rohr

37 The Guide to the Foundations of Public Administration, Daniel W Martin

39 Terrorism and Emergency Management: Policy and Administration,

William L Waugh, Jr.

46 Handbook of Public Budgeting, edited by Jack Rabin

49 Handbook of Court Administration and Management, edited by Steven W Hays

and Cole Blease Graham, Jr.

50 Handbook of Comparative Public Budgeting and Financial Management, edited by

Thomas D Lynch and Lawrence L Martin

53 Encyclopedia of Policy Studies: Second Edition, edited by Stuart S Nagel

54 Handbook of Regulation and Administrative Law, edited by David H Rosenbloom

and Richard D Schwartz

55 Handbook of Bureaucracy, edited by Ali Farazmand

56 Handbook of Public Sector Labor Relations, edited by Jack Rabin, Thomas Vocino,

W Bartley Hildreth, and Gerald J Miller

57 Practical Public Management, Robert T Golembiewski

58 Handbook of Public Personnel Administration, edited by Jack Rabin, Thomas Vocino, W.

Bartley Hildreth, and Gerald J Miller

60 Handbook of Debt Management, edited by Gerald J Miller

61 Public Administration and Law: Second Edition, David H Rosenbloom

and Rosemary O’Leary

62 Handbook of Local Government Administration, edited by John J Gargan

63 Handbook of Administrative Communication, edited by James L Garnett

and Alexander Kouzmin

64 Public Budgeting and Finance: Fourth Edition, edited by Robert T Golembiewski

and Jack Rabin

67 Handbook of Public Finance, edited by Fred Thompson and Mark T Green

68 Organizational Behavior and Public Management: Third Edition, Michael L Vasu,

Debra W Stewart, and G David Garson

69 Handbook of Economic Development, edited by Kuotsai Tom Liou

70 Handbook of Health Administration and Policy, edited by Anne Osborne Kilpatrick

and James A Johnson

72 Handbook on Taxation, edited by W Bartley Hildreth and James A Richardson

73 Handbook of Comparative Public Administration in the Asia-Pacific Basin, edited by

Hoi-kwok Wong and Hon S Chan

74 Handbook of Global Environmental Policy and Administration, edited by

Dennis L Soden and Brent S Steel

75 Handbook of State Government Administration, edited by John J Gargan

76 Handbook of Global Legal Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

78 Handbook of Global Economic Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

79 Handbook of Strategic Management: Second Edition, edited by Jack Rabin,

Gerald J Miller, and W Bartley Hildreth

80 Handbook of Global International Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

81 Handbook of Organizational Consultation: Second Edition, edited by

Robert T Golembiewski

82 Handbook of Global Political Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

83 Handbook of Global Technology Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel

84 Handbook of Criminal Justice Administration, edited by M A DuPont-Morales, Michael

K Hooper, and Judy H Schmidt

85 Labor Relations in the Public Sector: Third Edition, edited by Richard C Kearney

86 Handbook of Administrative Ethics: Second Edition, edited by Terry L Cooper

87 Handbook of Organizational Behavior: Second Edition, edited by

Robert T Golembiewski

88 Handbook of Global Social Policy, edited by Stuart S Nagel and Amy Robb

89 Public Administration: A Comparative Perspective, Sixth Edition, Ferrel Heady

93 Handbook of Crisis and Emergency Management, edited by Ali Farazmand

94 Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration: Second Edition,

edited by Ali Farazmand

95 Financial Planning and Management in Public Organizations, Alan Walter Steiss

and Emeka O Cyprian Nwagwu

96 Handbook of International Health Care Systems, edited by Khi V Thai,

Edward T Wimberley, and Sharon M McManus

97 Handbook of Monetary Policy, edited by Jack Rabin and Glenn L Stevens

98 Handbook of Fiscal Policy, edited by Jack Rabin and Glenn L Stevens

99 Public Administration: An Interdisciplinary Critical Analysis, edited by Eran Vigoda

100 Ironies in Organizational Development: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,

edited by Robert T Golembiewski

101 Science and Technology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism, edited by

Tushar K Ghosh, Mark A Prelas, Dabir S Viswanath, and Sudarshan K Loyalka

102 Strategic Management for Public and Nonprofit Organizations, Alan Walter Steiss

103 Case Studies in Public Budgeting and Financial Management: Second Edition,

edited by Aman Khan and W Bartley Hildreth

104 Handbook of Conflict Management, edited by William J Pammer, Jr and Jerri Killian

105 Chaos Organization and Disaster Management, Alan Kirschenbaum

106 Handbook of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender Administration and Policy, edited

by Wallace Swan

107 Public Productivity Handbook: Second Edition, edited by Marc Holzer

108 Handbook of Developmental Policy Studies, edited by Gedeon M Mudacumura,

Desta Mebratu and M Shamsul Haque

109 Bioterrorism in Medical and Healthcare Administration, Laure Paquette

110 International Public Policy and Management: Policy Learning Beyond Regional,

Cultural, and Political Boundaries, edited by David Levi-Faur and Eran Vigoda-Gadot 111.Handbook of Public Information Systems, Second Edition, edited by G David Garson

112 Handbook of Public Sector Economics, edited by Donijo Robbins

113 Handbook of Public Administration and Policy in the European Union, edited by

M Peter van der Hoek

114 Nonproliferation Issues for Weapons of Mass Destruction, Mark A Prelas

and Michael S Peck

115 Common Ground, Common Future: Moral Agency in Public Administration,

Professions, and Citizenship, Charles Garofalo and Dean Geuras

116 Handbook of Organization Theory and Management: The Philosophical Approach, Second Edition, edited by Thomas D Lynch and Peter L Cruise

117 International Development Governance, edited by Ahmed Shafiqul Huque

and Habib Zafarullah

118 Sustainable Development Policy and Administration, edited by

Gedeon M Mudacumura, Desta Mebratu, and M Shamsul Haque

119 Public Financial Management, edited by Howard A Frank

120 Handbook of Juvenile Justice: Theory and Practice, edited by Barbara Sims

and Pamela Preston

121 Emerging Infectious Diseases and the Threat to Occupational Health in the U.S and Canada, edited by William Charney

122 Handbook of Technology Management in Public Administration, edited by

David Greisler and Ronald J Stupak

123 Handbook of Decision Making, edited by Göktu ˘g Morçöl

124 Handbook of Public Administration, Third Edition, edited by Jack Rabin,

W Bartley Hildreth, and Gerald J Miller

125 Handbook of Public Policy Analysis, edited by Frank Fischer, Gerald J Miller,

and Mara S Sidney

James S Bowman and Jonathan P West

128 Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration, edited by Jeremy Plant

129 The Art and Practice of Court Administration, Alexander B Aikman

130 Handbook of Globalization, Governance, and Public Administration, edited by

Ali Farazmand and Jack Pinkowski

131 Handbook of Globalization and the Environment, edited by Khi V Thai, Dianne Rahm,

and Jerrell D Coggburn

132 Personnel Management in Government: Politics and Process, Sixth Edition,

Norma M Riccucci and Katherine C Naff

133 Handbook of Police Administration, edited by Jim Ruiz and Don Hummer

134 Handbook of Research Methods in Public Administration, Second Edition, edited by

Kaifeng Yang and Gerald J Miller

135 Social and Economic Control of Alcohol: The 21st Amendment in the 21st Century,

edited by Carole L Jurkiewicz and Murphy J Painter

136 Government Public Relations: A Reader, edited by Mordecai Lee

137 Handbook of Military Administration, edited by Jeffrey A Weber and Johan Eliasson

138 Disaster Management Handbook, edited by Jack Pinkowski

139 Homeland Security Handbook, edited by Jack Pinkowski

140 Health Capital and Sustainable Socioeconomic Development, edited by

Patricia A Cholewka and Mitra M Motlagh

141 Handbook of Administrative Reform: An International Perspective, edited by

Jerri Killian and Niklas Eklund

142 Government Budget Forecasting: Theory and Practice, edited by Jinping Sun

and Thomas D Lynch

143 Handbook of Long-Term Care Administration and Policy, edited by

Cynthia Massie Mara and Laura Katz Olson

144 Handbook of Employee Benefits and Administration, edited by Christopher G Reddick

and Jerrell D Coggburn

145 Business Improvement Districts: Research, Theories, and Controversies, edited by

Göktu ˘g Morçöl, Lorlene Hoyt, Jack W Meek, and Ulf Zimmermann

146 International Handbook of Public Procurement, edited by Khi V Thai

147 State and Local Pension Fund Management, Jun Peng

148 Contracting for Services in State and Local Government Agencies, William Sims Curry

149 Understanding Research Methods: A Guide for the Public and Nonprofit Manager,

Donijo Robbins

150 Labor Relations in the Public Sector, Fourth Edition, Richard Kearney

151 Performance-Based Management Systems: Effective Implementation

and Maintenance, Patria de Lancer Julnes

152 Handbook of Governmental Accounting, edited by Frederic B Bogui

153 Bureaucracy and Administration, edited by Ali Farazmand

154 Science and Technology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism, Second Edition, edited by

Tushar K Ghosh, Mark A Prelas, Dabir S Viswanath, and Sudarshan K Loyalka

Available Electronically Principles and Practices of Public Administration, edited by

Jack Rabin, Robert F Munzenrider, and Sherrie M Bartell

PublicADMINISTRATIONnetBASE

Edited by Tushar K Ghosh

University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.

Mark A Prelas

University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.

Dabir S Viswanath

University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.

Sudarshan K Loyalka

University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri, U.S.A.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Science and technology of terrorism and counterterrorism / editors: Tushar K Ghosh [et al.] 2nd

ed.

p cm (Public administration and public policy ; 156)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-4200-7181-8 (alk paper)

1 Terrorism Technological innovations 2 Bioterrorism 3 Chemical terrorism 4 Nuclear

terrorism I Ghosh, Tushar K., Dr II Title III Series.

Preface xiii Authors .xvii

SUDARSHAN K LOYALKA AND ROBERT V TOMPSON, JR.

TUSHAR K GHOSH AND MARK A PRELAS

Preparedness .153

L DAVID ORMEROD

Government Can Do in Defending the Homeland .185

MARION C WARWICK

KEITH A HICKEY

12 Agroterrorism: Attributes and Implications of High-Impact

Targets in U.S Agriculture .251

TUSHAR K GHOSH, MARK A PRELAS,

AND ROBERT V TOMPSON, JR.

WILLIAM H MILLER AND ROBERT LINDSAY

SUDARSHAN K LOYALKA

SUDARSHAN K LOYALKA AND MARK A PRELAS

and Properties .329

DABIR S VISWANATH AND TUSHAR K GHOSH

and Mitigation .355

L DAVID ORMEROD

DABIR S VISWANATH AND TUSHAR K GHOSH

MARK A PRELAS AND TUSHAR K GHOSH

MARK A PRELAS AND TUSHAR K GHOSH

L DAVID ORMEROD, TUSHAR K GHOSH,

AND DABIR S VISWANATH

HARRY W TYRER

GLENN P JIRKA AND WADE THOMPSON

27 National Response Plan and Preparedness .509

TUSHAR K GHOSH

JULIE A BENTZ AND THERESA M CROCKER

ALLEN KROTMAN, JANICE R BALLO, AND MARION C WARWICK

Index 571

Since the fi rst edition of this book was published in 2002, many changes have taken place with respect to the issues concerning homeland security Scientists, engineers, political scientists, politi-cians, and any other professional who have anything to do with this subject should ask themselves the following questions:

Is the fear of terrorism greater today than it was in 2002?

Is the situation better or worse today than it was in 2002?

When we look at things impassionedly, the answers to both these questions appear to be that we are more fearful and the situation is worsening Why is this so when we live in a world that has better communications, better science and technology, and more fi nancial power than was the case in 2002? After the events of 9/11 (September 11, 2001), we have witnessed bombs being detonated

in Madrid (Madrid train bombing in March 2004) that killed 191 and wounded over 600; the bus hijacking in Ulghur, Krygyzstan (March 2003) that resulted in 20 deaths; suicide attacks

in 2004 at the Port of Ashdod, Israel, that resulted in 10 deaths; the London subway attacks (July 7, 2005) that killed 52 and injured nearly 800; four attempted bomb attacks on July 21 again in London that were disrupted; failed attempts on August 9, 2006, to detonate liquid explosives aboard fl ights from London to the United States; the ongoing suicide bombings in Iraq; and many more incidents that attest to the increase in terroristic acts across the world

Terroristic activities are on the rise on the global scene, and it is generally believed that such activities can be contained or eliminated by controlling the proliferation of nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) weapons; by building a strong defense system; by having in place diff erent types

of treaties; and by punishing countries that fail to follow such agreements One may ask why these procedures, which are in place at the present time, failed to stop activities such as the Tokyo subway gassing, the Oklahoma City bombing, the World Trade Center bombing and attack, the bombing

at the Atlanta Olympic games, and many more similar incidents Th is book is a direct outcome of several recent group discussions by the editors Th ese discussions were motivated by the fact that some of us were involved in research in the area of sensors, and that one of us, Mark A Prelas, spent

a year at the U.S State Department as a Foster fellow Another motivating factor was that the Nuclear Engineering Program organized a series of seminars on the nonproliferation of nuclear materials and weapons in 1998 Th is series included presentations by Dr Sudarshan Loyalka,

Dr Mark Prelas, Dr Dale Klein (formerly Assistant Secretary of Defense for NBC Defense and the former chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission), LTC Charles Kelsey, and Dr Herb Tillema A third major motivation was to introduce undergraduate and graduate students from several disciplines to this important area with an emphasis on the scientifi c and technological

aspects All of these factors led us to organize and off er courses in the area of terrorism and counterterrorism One of us, Dabir S Viswanath, did a survey on the courses off ered in this area

in other engineering departments and found that most courses were confi ned to social, behavioral, and law departments We found that none of the courses addressed the scientifi c and technologi-cal aspects of this subject Th erefore, during the fall 2000 semester we organized this course and sought the help of other faculty members Dabir S Viswanath took on the responsibility of drawing

up the syllabus and arranging the lectures, and two other editors, Mark A Prelas and Tushar K Ghosh, took on the responsibility of taping the lectures, putting the material onto CDs, and putting the lectures onto the Web (http://prelas.nuclear.missouri.edu/NE401/NE401.htm)

Th e fi rst defense with regard to several areas such as pollution control, waste management, terrorism, and a host of other issues is education It is essential to educate a core group—the students who can spread the word We received a good response from the student community Our initial idea that students from various departments should take this course was amply rewarded Th e class had students from political science, journalism, microbiology, nuclear engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science and computer engineering, and electrical engineering, as well as some with undeclared majors Th e class was a 50–50 mix of graduate and undergraduate students Th is mix allowed room for extensive discussions, and the faculty and students felt that this was one of the strengths of this course Th e course received substantial press, radio, and TV coverage both on a local and on a national scale We are glad to see that our eff orts have culminated in the form of this book Th e enthusiasm of the faculty, the students, and the press was overwhelming We express our sincere gratitude to all these groups

We hope that this book will help students who will be our future policy makers and diplomats

to understand some basic information on the nature of terrorism, the materials used by terrorists, how to detect them, and how to destroy such materials, while at the same time showing how to deal with terrorist groups We also anticipate that this book will help our current politicians and policy makers We hope that it will be a catalyst for several engineering departments to off er inno-vative courses in this area, and enhance our capabilities in counterterrorism

Th e current revision has been expanded from 26 to 29 chapters Th e bulk of the material is directed toward understanding the why, how, and what of each type of terrorism It is possible to expand and combine each of the nuclear, biological, chemical, and agro- and cyber-terrorism chapters and develop the material into a 3 h course To appeal to a wider audience, an attempt has been made to streamline both the political and technological parts of terrorism and counterterrorism

We hope this book will inspire faculties to innovate courses encompassing several disciplines and

to provide students with a wide perspective Th e future in this area is unknown, as we cannot predict where, when, and how terrorists will strike, but we hope we can take all possible preventive measures to minimize the disaster

Chapter 1 introduces the broad thinking on terrorist attacks after September 11, 2001, and summarizes selected case studies Chapters 2 and 3 lay the foundation for this book by discussing the origin and nature of terrorism and the factors involved in diplomacy Chapter 4 deals with the fundamentals of aerosol dispersion as many of the toxic materials are released as aerosol particles Chapters 5 through 10 deal with the fundamentals of bioterrorism, the manufacture of certain biological agents, and their delivery In addition, these chapters deal with the detection of biologi-cal agents and countermeasures that need to be taken Chapters 11 and 12 deal with agricultural terrorism Th is section has been expanded to include a second chapter on the attributes and implications of agroterrorism Nuclear terrorism is dealt with in Chapters 13 through 18 Besides discussing the fundamentals, these chapters also discuss nuclear weapons systems, threats, and safeguards Chemical terrorism is described in Chapters 19 through 24 Th ese chapters discuss

various chemicals used and their manufacture, detection, delivery, and decontamination Chapter 25 deals with cyber- terrorism, its nature and scope, how it takes place, its consequences, and what

we can do to protect against such attacks When a disaster occurs, one simple but very eff ective measure is to protect ourselves with proper clothing Th is is discussed in Chapter 26 Th e role of the government at the federal and state levels and the role of international agencies, along with their respective resources, capabilities, and responsibilities, are discussed in Chapters 27 through

29 Th is section has been extended to include the current national infrastructure to protect zens from terrorist attacks

citi-Today we know that citizens have to be very vigilant and should learn as much as possible about terrorism Th e September 11, 2001, World Trade Center attack has awakened the country like no other single event in the history of the United States, presumably not even the Pearl Harbor attack Th e public needs to know the profi le of a terrorist, the threat of NBC weapons, what measures to take in case of an attack, how to respond in case of an emergency, and a host of other things We have tried to present as comprehensive a report as possible We recognize that we have not covered all the materials that should be included in a text of this nature Sections of this book can be expanded to cover more comprehensive courses

In closing, it is a pleasure to thank the faculty and the guest lecturers who willingly pated in this course; contributors to this book who, in spite of their busy schedules, cooperated in getting the manuscript completed in a short period; students who participated in the course and whose enthusiasm encouraged the faculty to do their best; the local and national media who interviewed us about this course; the reviewers for their comments that signifi cantly improved the presentation; and Taylor & Francis for their help and cooperation Additionally, this text is the fi rst manuscript from the newly formed Nuclear Science and Engineering Institute at the University of Missouri-Columbia We wish to express our gratitude to the University of Missouri

partici-Tushar K Ghosh Mark A Prelas Dabir S Viswanath Sudarshan K Loyalka

Janice R Ballo is a lead information analyst in the Knowledge Management Services Department

at the MITRE Corporation in McLean, Virginia She has a BA in history and an MA in library and information science from the University of South Florida, as well as an MA in history from Florida State University

to the Secretary of Defense for Nuclear Matters In this role, Colonel Bentz provides oversight, coordination, review, and advocacy within the Department of Defense (DoD) for counterprolifer-ation and counterterrorism initiatives such as nuclear/radiological detection, interdiction, collection, render safe procedure, forensics, and attribution She currently provides subject-matter expertise in defi ning and implementing the nuclear defense mission for the DoD, including the development

of acquisition, research, and development strategies She advises the assistant to the Secretary of Defense for Nuclear and Chemical and Biological Defense Programs on the oversight responsibilities for all DoD programs within this mission space

Colonel Bentz’s previous assignment was on the Homeland Security Council (HSC) as the director for Nuclear Defense Policy She was instrumental in writing presidential policy for nuclear detection, technical nuclear forensics, and other nuclear defense issues Prior to her HSC experience, Colonel Bentz served as the science advisor for National Guard Bureau on homeland defense, where she aided in the development and procurement of the Civil Support Team Analytical Laboratory System

Colonel Bentz is a recent graduate of the National War College and holds a PhD in nuclear engineering from the University of Missouri-Columbia

Gordon D Christensen is the associate chief of staff for research and development at the Harry S

Truman Memorial Veterans Hospital in Columbia, Missouri, and a professor of internal medicine

at the University of Missouri-Columbia He is a fellow of the Infectious Diseases Society of America, the American Academy of Microbiology, and the American College of Physicians He is the author or coauthor of over 120 professional papers and abstracts Dr Christensen received his

MD from Creighton University in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1974 and completed his postgraduate training in infectious diseases and internal medicine at the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, Texas, in 1979

Th eresa M Crocker has more than 25 years of experience in planning and training for disaster

preparedness, emergency medicine, and public health She has the required experience to develop and conduct Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive (CBRNE) exercises and training courses and has conducted training for the National Incident Management System (NIMS), HSEEP, National Response Plan (NRP), Incident Command System (ICS), and weapons

of mass destruction (WMD) She planned and coordinated interdepartmental/interagency/intergovernmental emergency response operations for all levels of government, nongovernmental organizations, volunteer agencies, and private businesses Crocker represented the National Association of City and County Health Offi cials (NACCHO) for the Department of Homeland Security, State/Local/Tribal Work Group (SLTWG) Th is group was involved in authoring the National Preparedness Goal and its component parts, including the Universal Task List and the Targeted Capabilities List Th e group was historically an integral participant in authoring both the NRP and the NIMS Crocker has an MS in science of disaster response from Indiana University

of Pennsylvania, which consisted of intensive training in the principles involved in detecting, identifying, and safe handling of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear agents and their precursors as they are related to WMDs She also has a BS in nursing from the University of Steubenville, Ohio

Michael A Diamond is a professor of public aff airs and the director of the Center for the Study

of Organizational Change at the Truman School of Public Aff airs at the University of Missouri

He teaches and writes on organizational analysis, group dynamics and confl ict resolution, and the group psychology of terrorism Diamond was awarded the 1994 Harry Levinson Award for Excellence in Consulting Psychology from the American Psychological Association, the 1999 William T Kemper Fellow for Excellence in Teaching, and the 2005 Faculty-Alumni Award from the University of Missouri-Columbia He is the founder and past president of the International Society for the Psychoanalytic Study of Organizations and has published over 50 journal articles and several books He is a practicing psychoanalytic organizational consultant with over 25 years

of experience He is also former coeditor in chief of the American Review of Public Administration,

and is currently coeditor in chief of the forthcoming e-journal, the Journal of Organizational Psychodynamics (JOP).

Tushar K Ghosh is a professor of nuclear engineering at the University of Missouri-Columbia

(MU) After receiving his PhD in chemical engineering in July 1989 from Oklahoma State University in Stillwater, Dr Ghosh worked at MU as a research assistant professor in conjunction with the chemical and nuclear engineering departments and the Particulate Systems Research Center His research interests include the development of ultrasensitive sensors for chemical and biological agents He is the author or coauthor of more than 100 journal articles and several books

He has also played an instrumental role in developing several courses on homeland security and counterterrorism at MU

and an adjunct assistant professor at the University of Missouri He is a member of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine, the Health Physics Society, and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers; he is also a certifi ed health physicist and is board certifi ed by the American Board of Radiology in Th erapeutic Radiological Physics Dr Hickey is a former U.S Army reserve nuclear medical science offi cer with several years of experience in defense related advanced technology and systems engineering He received his PhD in nuclear engineering from the University of Missouri-Columbia in 1989

Glenn P Jirka was the environmental emergency response program manager for the University

of Missouri-Columbia Extension Division’s Fire and Rescue Training Institute and an adjunct assistant professor in the College of Engineering at the University of Missouri-Columbia Jirka

is a member of the National Fire Protection Association Technical Committee on Hazardous Materials Protective Clothing and Equipment, the Department of Justice–Department of Defense Joint Interagency Board for Equipment Standardization and Interoperability, and the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s First Responder Technology Transfer Committer on Weapons

of Mass Destruction and Hazardous Materials, among others He is also the author or coauthor

of numerous professional papers and curricula Jirka received his MS in chemistry from Southern Illinois University-Carbondale in 1990 and completed his postgraduate work from the School of Chemical Sciences at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Allen Krotman is a senior project leader in the Healthcare Mission Area in MITRE Corporation’s

Center for Enterprise Modernization He has over 25 years of experience in the practice of forming and leading technical and nontechnical teams, designing and implementing new and improved systems and processes, and managing large programs Since joining MITRE in 2005, Krotman has contributed technically to and managed large programs for the Department

of Health and Human Services (HHS) Currently, he is the MITRE project lead for the Healthcare & Public Health Sector Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) Program In this role, Krotman supports the Offi ce of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response within HHS Th e Healthcare and Public Health CIP Program supports Homeland Security Presidential Directive-7 and the implementation of the National Infrastructure Protection Plan

of 2006 Krotman graduated with distinction from Purdue University with a bachelor’s degree

in computer science

Robert Lindsay is a professor in the physics department at the University of the Western Cape in

South Africa He was awarded a Rhodes scholarship in 1978 to study at Oxford in England after obtaining his BSc in physics at Stellenbosch University in South Africa He obtained a DPhil in theo-retical physics at Oxford in 1982 He spent two years as a postdoc at Daresbury Laboratory in the United Kingdom and then joined the University of the Western Cape His present research interests are in applied nuclear physics, specifi cally radon measurements and the use of natural radioactivity

Sudarshan K Loyalka is a curators’ professor of nuclear engineering and chemical

engineer-ing and the director of the Particulate Systems Research Center at the University of Columbia His research interests are in transport theory, aerosol mechanics, the kinetic theory

Missouri-of gases, and neutron reactor physics and safety Dr Loyalka is a fellow Missouri-of both the American Physical Society (since 1982) and the American Nuclear Society (since 1985) He has published more than 170 papers and provided guidance to approximately 70 graduate students He has received numerous awards for his research and teaching, including the David Sinclair Award (1995) of the American Association for Aerosol Research and the Glenn Murphy Award (1998) of the American Association for Education

William H Miller is the James C Dowell research professor of nuclear engineering and the

director of the Energy Systems and Resources Program at the University of Missouri-Columbia, where he has taught graduate nuclear engineering for 28 years He is the author of approximately

100 papers and has made over 1000 presentations to the public on issues concerning energy, the environment, radiation, and nuclear power Dr Miller received his PhD in nuclear engineering from the University of Missouri-Columbia

L David Ormerod is currently with Genentech Inc., San Francisco, California He was the

chief of vitreoretinal surgery and an associate professor of ophthalmology at the University of Missouri-Columbia School of Medicine He is a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons, a fellow

of the Royal College of Ophthalmologists, and a member of the Royal College of Physicians, and has been educated in St Bartholomew’s Medical College at the University of London He is a diplomate in tropical medicine and hygiene (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) and has an MS in immunology from the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom He has served in a professional capacity at the Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London, and at Ahmadu Bellow University, Zaria, Nigeria Ormerod received a fellowship from the U.S government for training in cornea and external diseases (Harvard University) and in the retina (Wayne State University) and has received the Honor Award of the American Academy of Ophthalmology He

is the author of 85 publications in ophthalmology, internal and tropical medicine, immunology, visual rehabilitation, and the medical aspects of terrorism

Mark A Prelas is H O Croft professor of nuclear engineering at the University of

Missouri-Columbia Prelas received his PhD from the University of Illinois in 1979 Dr Prelas received the Presidential Young Investigator Award in 1984, was a Gas Research Institute fellow in 1981, was a Fulbright fellow at the University of New South Wales in 1992, was named a fellow of the American Nuclear Society in 1999, and was a William C Foster fellow with the U.S Department

of State in 1999–2000 In addition to being a professor at the University of Missouri, he worked at the U.S Department of State in the Bureau of AM1S Control in 1999–2000 and with the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory of the U.S Department of Energy in 1987 He has worked in the areas of arms control for weapons of mass destruction; in the development of nuclear, chemical, and biological sensors; in the synthesis and application of wide band-gap materials; in directed energy weapons; in direct energy conversion; and in gaseous electronics He has published over

200 papers and 5 books and holds 12 national and international patents

Online, and other publications She has a master’s degree in molecular pathology from the

University of California

Extension Division’s Fire and Rescue Training Institute He is also a lieutenant with the Columbia,

MO Fire Department; a member of the weapons of mass destruction response unit housed at the Boone County (MO) Fire Protection District; and a former member of the United States Marine Corps, Second Recon Battalion Th ompson has over 10 years of experience in hazardous materials and emergency response

Herbert K Tillema is a professor of political science at the University of Missouri-Columbia

His received his BA from Hope College in 1964 and his PhD from Harvard University in 1969

Dr Tillema served as commissioner, State of Missouri Peace Offi cer Standards and Training Commission from 1992 to 1994 He has written several books and articles on the use of force in international relations, including Appeal to Force—American Military Intervention in the Era of Containment and International Armed Confl ict Since 1945.

Robert V Tompson, Jr is an associate professor of nuclear engineering in the Nuclear Science

and Engineering Institute at the University of Missouri-Columbia (MU) He received his BS

in physics in 1980, his MS in nuclear engineering in 1984, and his PhD in nuclear engineering

in 1988, all from MU Dr Tompson subsequently worked for three years as a postdoctoral research associate, fi rst at the University of Kentucky for one year and then back at MU for two more years Dr Tompson was the recipient of a NASA Summer 1991 Faculty Fellowship at the Langley Research Center, following which he became a tenure-track assistant professor at

MU He is deeply involved in the activities of the Particulate Systems Research Center at MU, where he is the associate director His research interests are in the experimental and theoretical aspects of nuclear reactor safety, aerosol mechanics, rarefi ed gas dynamics, indoor air quality, particulate-based and particle-related materials, and particle manufacturing and applications

He is a member of the American Nuclear Society, the American Physical Society, the American Vacuum Society, the American Association for Aerosol Research, the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, and Sigma Xi Dr Tompson has about 70 publications including almost

40 refereed journal articles as well as a number of transactions and proceedings

Harry W Tyrer is a professor in and chairman of computer engineering and computer science

at the University of Missouri-Columbia He holds several degrees in electrical engineering and received his PhD from Duke University in 1972 Dr Tyrer has edited three volumes and several special issues, and has contributed to over 60 publications He has developed biomedical instrumentation, object- oriented applications, and wireless communication systems Additionally,

he has written on real-time operating systems, digital systems, computer networks, and computer network performance

Dabir S Viswanath is an emeritus professor and Dowell chair of chemical engineering at the

University of Missouri-Columbia Since his retirement in 2000, Dr Viswanath has been associated with the Nuclear Science and Engineering Institute at the university He is a fellow of both the American Institute of Chemical Engineers and the American Institute of Chemists He has provided guidance to over 50 graduate students and has published over 130 peer-reviewed papers and 4 American Petroleum Institute monographs He has coauthored two books: Data Book on the Viscosity of Liquids, published by Hemisphere in 1989, and Liquid Viscosity, published by Springer

in 2006 His research interests are in thermodynamic properties and transport of liquids and gases, process development, wastewater treatment, and thermal degradation of polymers in ceramics He has taught at Bucknell University, the Indian Institute of Science, and Texas A&M

Marion C Warwick was a medical epidemiologist and the bioterrorism coordinator for the

Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services Dr Warwick currently practices medicine, is the author of several papers on subjects related to both medicine and public health, and is a mem-ber of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene; she is also board certifi ed in both family practice and preventive medicine She received her MD from the University of Minnesota

in 1985 and her MPH from the University of Massachusetts, Worcester, in 1996 She has also been associated with the MITRE Corporation in McLean, Virginia

and Emigh) 10Second World Trade Center Attack 11Anthrax Th reat 12References 14

We started teaching a course entitled “Science and Technology of Terrorism and Counterterrorism”

in 2000, before the USS Cole incident in October 2000 Th e manuscript for the fi rst edition of this text was completed after the September 11, 2001, World Trade Center (WTC) disaster, and the book was published in August 2002 Th e Iraq war started on March 20, 2003, to eliminate weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), but it has now become a war against terrorism and terror-ists Today, in 2009, we are living in a world fearful of terrorism We may not be able to completely eliminate terrorism, but we can work toward reducing terrorism Education is one of the avenues

to reduce terrorism, and we hope this book will contribute toward this goal

Th e Rand report [1] under the chairmanship of Governor Gilmore of Virginia stated that

Th e United States needs a functional, coherent national strategy for domestic preparedness against terrorism Administrative measurements of program implementation are not meaningful for the purposes of strategic management and obscure the more funda-mental and important question: To what end are these programs being implemented?

Th e Advisory Panel therefore recommends that the next President develops and

presents to the Congress a national strategy for combating terrorism within one year

of assuming offi ce As the Advisory Panel recognized in its fi rst report, our nation’s highest goal must be the deterrence and prevention of terrorism Th e United States cannot, however, prevent all terrorist attacks

Th e programs recommended by the panel are

Domestic Preparedness Programs: We recommend an Assistant Director for Domestic Preparedness Programs in the National Offi ce to direct the coordination of Federal programs designed to assist response entities at the local and State levels, especially in the areas of “crisis” and “consequence” planning, training, exercises, and equipment programs for combating terrorism Th e national strategy that the National Offi ce should develop—in coordination with State and local stakeholders—must provide strategic direction and priorities for programs and activities in each of these areas

Health and Medical Programs: Much remains to be done in the coordination and enhancement of Federal health and medical programs for combating terrorism and for coordination among public health offi cials, public and private hospitals, prehospital emergency medical service (EMS) entities, and the emergency management communities

We recommend that the responsibility for coordinating programs to address health and medical issues be vested in an Assistant Director for Health and Medical Programs

in the National Offi ce for Combating Terrorism Th e national strategy should provide direction for the establishment of national education programs for the health and medical disciplines, for the development of national standards for health and medical response to terrorism, and for clarifying various legal and regulatory authorities for health and medical response

Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation (RDT&E), and National Standards:

We recommend that the responsibility for coordinating programs in these two areas

be assigned to an Assistant Director for Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation, and National Standards in the National Offi ce for Combating Terrorism Th e national strategy should provide direction and priorities for RDT&E for combating terrorism

We believe that the Federal government has primary responsibility for combating terrorism RDT&E Local jurisdictions and most states will not have the resources to engage in the research and development required in the sophisticated environment that may be a part of the nation’s response to terrorism Moreover, we have essentially

no nationally recognized standards in such areas as personal protective equipment, detection equipment, and laboratory protocols and techniques

Th us the report clearly points to the fact that counterterrorism measures must be developed and should be in place, and that research, development, testing, and evaluation must be supported

To carry out signifi cant research in any area, students must be educated and future research needs

to be explored It was with this objective in mind that we developed a curriculum in the area of the scientifi c and technological aspects of terrorism and counterterrorism Our search for courses that dealt with the scientifi c and technological aspects of terrorism and counterterrorism revealed that the engineering and science departments did not teach any course of this nature, but a large number of such courses were taught by faculty in political science, public policy, and related areas

Th e motivation to start a program of this type was enhanced when we found that there are hundreds of books and a host of journals dealing with this subject; however, the scientifi c and technological aspects of terrorism and counterterrorism are loosely and thinly spread in some jour-nal articles, for example, in the August 1997 (Volume 278, No 5) issue of the Journal of American Medical Association on biological warfare.

Just when the fi rst edition of this book was published, President George W Bush had formed the Department of Homeland Security under the leadership of Governor Tom Ridge Now Secretary Janet Napolitano heads the department Th e organization and other details are discussed

in later chapters

Th e events that have taken place after September 11, 2001, particularly the ongoing wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, have not only changed the thinking of world leaders but even that of every citizen What are some of the things we learned after September 11, 2001? Th e following are some

of them:

1 Th at terrorism is part of our daily lives, and that no country, irrespective of its strong and technical advancement, is immune from terrorism Before September 11, 2001, not many individuals paid much attention to terrorism, but now it is in the minds of all individuals Terrorism has been there and will be there, but we need to take steps to reduce terrorist acts Figure 1.1 shows that terrorist acts, based on the type of tactics used, have stayed fairly the same from 1980 to 2004 However, recent events (in 2005 and 2006), such as the London bus and underground train bombings, suicide bombings in Iraq, India, Bangladesh, commuter train bomb explosion in India which killed 209 and injured 720, unexploded suitcase bombs found in Dortmund and Koblenz in Germany,

Figure 1.1 Terrorist acts based on type (From Lal, R and Jackson, B.A., MIPT Annual Report,

2006, pp 3–18.)

John F Kennedy International Airport terror plot, and many more, point to the fact that

we need better methods of deterring terrorist acts

2 Th at there is a sustained fear of Al-Qaeda, and that homegrown terrorists are on the increase

3 Th at we have to sacrifi ce some amount of freedom, and freedom and security go hand in hand Th is is evident from the security at the airports, the restrictions we face in traveling, the price we have to pay to protect our freedom, restrictions to our freedom of expression, restrictions on civil liberties, economic sacrifi ces to build a secure nation, and many more

We have also come to realize that the relationship among security, democracy, and terrorism

is extremely complex

4 Th at there is a feeling that we are winning the war on terrorism It is not clear whether we are winning the battle and losing the war In democratic nations, as we are witnessing today, the minds of the politicians/governments change but an organization such as Al-Qaeda may not change We noticed this change when the Clinton administration changed to the Bush administration However, Al-Qaeda has not changed but has grown stronger

5 Th at strength and might are not the only ways of dealing with terrorists International opinion

is important and should not be ignored Diplomacy is a very important and integral part of the equation in fi ghting terrorism

6 Th at a complex but necessary infrastructure has to be built to take care of the aftermath of

a terrorist attack or a major disaster

7 Th at history cannot be ignored and historical perspective should be a part in fi ghting terrorism For example, Afghanistan has never been subjugated to a foreign rule

8 Th at terrorism is a threat to democracy and market economy However, democracy cannot

be forced on the people

9 Th at the human mind can be directed to cause evil, hatred, pain, and suff ering Even civil and democratic governments do not disclose all the information they have and do not always base their actions on credible information

Hundreds of such thoughts based on what has or has not been learnt after September 11, 2001, can be enumerated, but it is left to the readers to use their imagination and knowledge

Th e Five-Year Interagency Counterterrorism and Technology Crime Plan [3] lists specifi c goals that are to be addressed Th ey are to

1 Identify critical technologies for targeted research and development eff orts

2 Outline strategies for preventing, deterring, and reducing vulnerabilities to terrorism and improving law enforcement agency capabilities to respond to terrorist acts while ensuring interagency cooperation

3 Outline strategies for integrating crisis and consequence management

4 Outline strategies to protect our national information infrastructure

5 Outline strategies to improve state and local capabilities for responding to terrorist acts involving bombs, improvised explosive devices, chemical and biological agents, and cyber attacksEducation and research are key components in combating terrorism To have a better understanding

of terrorism and then to counter it, one should understand

1 Th e psychology of the terrorist or terrorist groups, the prevailing atmosphere in some countries which encourage and promote terrorist activities, and their religious, cultural, and economic background

2 How to manage terrorist events, and the short- and long-term eff ects of terrorist acts

3 What measures have to be taken to prevent terrorist acts? Th is involves educating both the terrorist (which is not easy) and the victim.

4 Th e underlying details of the weapons used in B-NCCE (biological, nuclear, chemical, cyber, and explosives) acts so that countermeasures can be devised

Terrorism, by nature, is diffi cult to defi ne Even the U.S government cannot agree on one single defi nition Th e old adage, “One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fi ghter” is still alive and well Listed below are several defi nitions of terrorism

Terrorism is the use or threatened use of force designed to bring about political change Laqueur [4] defi nes terrorism as an act that constitutes the illegitimate use of force to achieve a political objective when innocent people are targeted

According to Poland [4], terrorism is the premeditated, deliberate, systematic murder, mayhem, and threatening of the innocent to create fear and intimidation to gain a political or tactical advantage, usually to infl uence an audience

Th e Vice President’s Task Force in 1986 defi ned terrorism as the unlawful use or threat of violence against persons or property to further political or social objectives [5] It is usually intended to intimidate or coerce a government, individuals or groups, or to modify their behavior or politics.According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), terrorism is the unlawful use of force

or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population,

or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives

All these defi nitions have some connotation to political activity However, certain acts such as the poisoning of Tylenol tablets, the bombing of Centennial Olympic Games in Atlanta, and a score

of others, do not lend themselves to any political motives Th erefore, a much more general defi nition seems in order, which should include nonpolitical aspects of a terrorist act We would like to defi ne terrorism as “an organized act committed, with or without a political motive, to create fear resulting in death and destruction.” Th e analysis carried out by Schmidt and Jongman [6] shows that our defi nition takes into account several views expressed by various authors Th ey found that among the various terms used in defi ning terrorism, violence and force appeared in 83.5 percent of the defi nitions, political 65 percent, fear 51 percent, threat 47 percent, and so on However, it can be concluded that defi ning terrorism is not easy; changes have to be made from time to time, and have to be dynamic

Some of the terrorist acts that have taken place during the past few years can help in understanding the complexity of this subject A collection of case studies can help identify the following:

Th e type of people involved in terrorist attacks Can we profi le them?

to raise questions We will not discuss the details of the attacks, as the primary focus is to generate questions resulting from these incidents

On the basis of data given above, from the free fl ow of information, religious fundamentalism, increasing lethality of current biological and chemical weapons, the ease with which terrorist groups can acquire or develop weapons, and other factors, it can only be surmised that the number

of terrorist activities will increase and cause more damage In spite of the availability of technology

in the open literature, it is not easy for the terrorists to manufacture biological and chemical weapons However, timely action might prevent terrorist activities and could be a lesson for others At the same time, it is important to understand that the current political unrest in various parts of the world and the economic disparity between the haves and the have-nots are drawing more and more educated people into diff erent terrorist camps, and this is a cause for alarm Th is may lead to a faster implementation of the technology available in the open literature It is a fairly complex issue, and an increased vigilance on the part of all citizens is important to reduce terrorist activities Th is increased vigilance can come by educating the public and through their eff orts

Table 1.1 shows a list of terrorist events from 1990 to 1999 in the United States However, it was not until September 11, 2001, that most paid any attention to terrorist attacks either in this country or in any other county in the world

Although the number of terrorist incidents has reduced in the United States, except for the major incident on September 11, 2001, the number of terrorist attacks in other parts of the world has increased Th e number of U.S noncombatant citizens killed worldwide as a result of terrorist incidents was 56 in 2005 and 28 in 2006 Also, 17 and 27 people were injured in 2005 and 2006, respectively Th e number of people kidnapped were 11 and 12 in 2005 and 2006, respectively (U.S Department of State, Country Reports on Terrorism 2006, http://www.terrorisminfo.mipt.org/pdf/Country-Reports-Terrorism-2006.pdf) Table 1.2 shows the incidents worldwide for 2005 and 2006, and the damage resulting out of these incidents

Table 1.1 Listing of Terrorist Events in the United States from 1990 to 1999

Year Incidents

Suspected Incidents Prevention

Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Nation al

Security Division, Terrorism in the United States, Report 1998, 1999.

It is evident from Table 1.2 that the number of terrorist activities is on the rise, and creative ways have to be found to contain terrorism To bring things up to date, we have mentioned other major terrorist attacks since September 11, 2001 Th e total number of signifi cant incidents as reported by the State Department is shown in Table 1.3 Th e data shown in Table 1.3 was compiled from the

Table 1.2 Incidents Worldwide during 2005 and 2006

Incidents of terrorism worldwide 11,153 14,338 Number of individuals killed 14,618 20,498 Number of individuals injured 24,761 38,191 Number of individuals kidnapped 34,838 15,854

Source: U.S Department of State Country Reports on

Terrorism 2006, http://www.terrorisminfo.mipt.

org/pdf/Country-Reports-Terrorism-2006.pdf.

Table 1.3 Signifi cant Terrorist Incidents as Reported

by the U.S State Department

Year

No of Incidents Year

No of

No of Incidents

http://www.terrorisminfo.mipt.org/pdf/Country-Reports-information provided by the U.S Department of State as reported by the Offi ce of the Historian, Bureau of Public Aff airs It is likely that many incidents that are not considered signifi cant by the State Department are not included in this compilation However, it will suffi ce to say that there is

an increase in the number of such incidents particularly after September 11, 2001 terrorist attack

on the U.S soil Th e major point to note is that although several governments claim that terrorism

is under control and terrorists have been killed, the rise in the number of terrorist incidents does not justify such a conclusion

We would like to present a brief study of six terrorist acts that have occurred in recent years

We hope an in-depth study of these case studies will reveal the inherent problems in the design

of the security management, weaknesses in the design of such security management systems, adequacy or inadequacy of response, interface requirements such as sharing intelligence among various groups/agencies or even countries in combating terrorism, deep understanding of religious and cultural aspects, profi ling of terrorists and terrorist organizations, and a host of other questions

World Trade Center Bombing

On February 26, 1993, a car bomb exploded at the B2 level of the World Trade Center (WTC) killing six persons and injuring hundreds Th e blast created a 6 m diameter hole Th e event posed a number of questions:

1 What kind of intelligence did the government had about this attack? Was the attack mental in getting through a quick passage of the 1995 Counter Terrorism Bill?

2 Was this stateless warfare? If so, how can a government protect its citizens?

3 How many states or countries can the United States punish to contain such attacks? Would this work?

4 Is this a deep psychological problem?

5 Is this a religious problem? Do we know the basic tenets of diff erent religions, and which ones can we trust?

6 Why do terrorists target the United States and citizens of the United States? Can we draw broad-based conclusions or correlations of the diff erent terrorist attacks based on the policies

of the United States at diff erent times and support given to diff erent types of governments and people?

Tokyo Subway Attack

Th e Tokyo subway attack by the Aum Shinrikyo, or Supreme Truth, cult occurred on March

20, 1995, and killed over a dozen people and injured more than 5000 Th e chemical used in this attack was sarin gas (GB), although there were indications that the group was experimenting with biological agents such as anthrax, botulism toxin, and the Ebola virus Th ere were widespread reports that this was a trial attack by the Aum group before a larger attack, and that the Aum group experimented with sheep in the Banjawarn area in Australia Th e latter news was based on

an Australian Broadcasting Company report and was thought to be incorrect for various reasons, and the European experts in chemical and nerve gas detection laughed at the suggestion that experiments on sheep were carried out with sarin Aum members in this Australian ranch were

apparently warned of a police attack Th ere are hundreds of reports and writings on this incident just like the Oklahoma Federal Building attack or the WTC attack What important lessons can

we learn from this Tokyo subway incident? Besides the points mentioned in the attack of WTC, some other points are:

1 Sarin was the chemical used, and like sarin there are many other nerve gases and toxic chemicals Have we reached a time when some of the chemicals should be restricted, even if they are of commercial importance?

2 Should we pay more attention to the reports, such as that of the Australian Broadcasting Company, and investigate more thoroughly?

3 Should there be more fi nancial commitment for research and development in areas such as sensor technology?

4 In the event of an attack, what is the minimum amount of information the public should know to defend or help themselves?

5 What was the motive of Aum Shinrikyo?

6 Will chemicals like sarin create allergy problems? How will one answer this question? Should there be research in this area?

7 Are the components of chemical and biological weapons available too easily?

8 How far can we go in preventing the proliferation of biological and chemical weapons?

Oklahoma City Bombing

On April 19, 1995, a bomb destroyed the Alfred Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, and killed 168 people and injured hundreds more Several agencies and teams were involved in the investigation Th ese agencies were Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF), the FBI, local police and fi re departments, Secret Service, many voluntary groups, and many other independent agencies Th e investigation was intense, but from the point of view of terrorism and counterterrorism, what are the important factors and what lessons have we learned?

Th e bomb was made with approximately 2 tons of ammonium nitrate fertilizer mixed with combustible fuel oil, and it was taken in a Ryder truck, and parked in front of the north side of the building before it was detonated Some questions are:

1 Was the building designed to withstand such blasts?

2 Should a chemical like ammonium nitrate be restricted? If so, what about ammonia and nitric acid? Can terrorists get hold of chemicals sold normally in the open market and make destructive chemicals?

3 How did the morale of the people in the country and around the world suff er? What was the impact on the people in the city, and what type of psychological counseling should be provided? What are the political implications? At fi rst it was thought that a Middle-Eastern group had carried out this attack, particularly in view of the WTC bombing on February 26,

1993 What would have happened if McVeigh was not arrested quickly?

4 What type of response was available immediately after the bombing—emergency, medical, etc.? Was it satisfactory? In public buildings where a large number of people work, should there be a common area where all personnel are required to go to report to get further instruction before leaving the building? Should most of the people in that building receive Emergency Medical Technician (EMT) training? How about communications?

5 In the Oklahoma City, WTC, and USS Cole bombings, vehicles were involved Should there

be restrictions regarding the vehicular traffi c (to keep them at a distance from the buildings), plans to transport materials that arrive at the building (unload from the carrying vehicle to

a vehicle owned by the Security at the building), etc.?

6 In these situations, the FBI and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) had control Would this hinder the assistance eff orts of other organizations, such as the Red Cross, church organizations, etc.? How should the relief eff orts be coordinated? What type of measures should be in place for issuing identifi cations, etc.? Th e president signed

an emergency declaration within 8 h of the occurrence—section 501(b) of the Staff ord Act—granting FEMA the primary federal responsibility for responding to a domestic consequence management incident Th e president subsequently declared a major disaster

on April 26, 1995

Internal Terrorism: Republic of Texas (Terrorist Activities

of Wise, Grebe, and Emigh)

Political objectives and motives appear to be the major reasons for some terrorist activities Almost all national or international terrorist attacks can be traced to political ends In some of the cases,

it is not clear how far the authorities follow tips or information to crack down on terrorist groups

Th is particular incident reveals how one attack was prevented

Th ree men belonging to the Republic of Texas group, Johnny Wise, Jack Abbott Grebe, Jr., and Oliver Dean Emigh, plotted to kill several members of the government including President Clinton Th ey were to obtain anthrax from sources outside the country, and were trying to make devices to target a federal judge in Texas Fortunately, FBI agents arrested these suspects on July 1,

1998 Th e FBI acted quickly in this case and thus prevented what could have been a major catastrophe

Th e trial of this case began on October 19, 1998, and concluded on October 29, 1998, when two

of the three were convicted What can we learn from this episode?

1 Did the FBI act timely to arrest the perpetrators?

2 Under what circumstances would the FBI think that a report is credible or not? In this case,

it is reported that an FBI agent thought that the “alleged plot to assassinate government

offi cials with poisoned cactus needles shot out of BIC lighters was far-fetched.”

3 What type of devices did this group put together? Th e lighters were to be rigged to shoot cactus needles dipped in substances such as anthrax, AIDS-tainted blood, and rabies, according to

an account by federal offi cers

4 Where did they get information to make the devices that they were trying to assemble?

5 Are the regulations for importing materials adequate?

6 If they succeeded in getting anthrax from a foreign source, what could have been the consequences?

7 Are they part of a larger group, and if so, what measures have been taken to keep a watch on this group?

8 Did the investigation end with their conviction or did it continue? If it continued, was the public informed?

9 What is the profi le of these people? Can the citizens be familiarized with these profi les, and

be guarded?

10 Were there any psychological tests carried out to profi le the type of individuals who could carry out such threats?

11 What is their educational background, and did they understand what they were doing?

12 What measures are in place to disseminate information? Should this information be disseminated at all?

13 How far can the government go before constitutional rights are violated?

Second World Trade Center Attack

On September 11, 2001, two jets from Boston, one bound to Los Angeles and the other one to San Francisco, crashed into Towers 1 and 2 of the WTC In all, four passenger jets were involved

in diff erent attacks on that day, killing over 3000 persons In addition, the immediate economic losses to the City of New York could be as high as 30 billion dollars, and the long-term economic losses

to the United States could amount to hundreds of billions of dollars

Th e loss of life in this attack was heavy, and mostly unaccounted Simple calculations show atures in excess of several thousand degrees could have resulted inside the tower building Th e towers, 415.5 m (1,363.25 ft) and 417 m (1,368.2 ft) tall, housed 418,600 m2 (4,504,136 ft2) of offi ce space Th e airplanes that hit the WTC were Boeing 767 and 757 Taking aviation fuel as a saturated hydrocarbon, and assuming that less than 5 percent of the total fuel (approximately 63,210 L or 16,700 gal) burned in

temper-an area of 3,011 m2 (32,400 ft2) (approximate area/fl oor), the amount of heat generated will be, mately, 7.6 × 1010 J (72 × 106 Btu) Th e air inside a volume of 11,011 m3 (388,800 ft3) (assuming a height

approxi-of 3.65 m (12 ft) ) gets heated to more than thousands approxi-of degree centigrade

Th is attack raises several questions besides those raised in the previous cases We will raise these questions in two sets; one similar to those raised in the examples cited above, and the other set pertaining to long-range policy Th e fi rst set of questions is

1 Is there anything close to foolproof airport security? What steps should be taken to enhance airport security?

2 It was reported that some of the persons involved in this attack took part in other attacks such as the bombing of USS Cole Th ese persons were residing in the United States without proper documents Is this a failure on the part of the FBI or failure of the Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS)? Do these agencies work separately? Is there a need for these two agencies to work closely at least in certain cases? Should several departments such as law enforcement, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the FBI, and, the INS work together?

In that case, who should be in charge of these departments? Should the federal government create a separate umbrella to oversee the work of these departments?

3 Th e New York City Fire Department, hospitals, volunteers, police, and other agencies did

a heroic job Was the emergency preparedness adequate? Do we have the same type of preparedness in other parts of the country as in New York?

4 Do we need new codes for buildings of the type of WTC?

5 We seem to be dealing with a particular set of people in this world who are identifi ed with terrorist acts Do we have the psychological profi les of the people who commit such terrible terrorist acts? Do we have a deep understanding of their religion and beliefs? Why do these countries hate the United States?

6 What type of terrorism is this? Is this chemical terrorism?

7 How can the injured and dead bodies be recovered in an organized and respectful way?

Th e second set of questions is

1 Why is the United States the main target of terrorist attack?

2 What is the origin of the persons who carried out this attack?

3 Being the most powerful nation in the world, what should be the U.S policy toward other countries?

4 President Bush very correctly said “Terrorism in any form is bad.” Would this be the nerstone of the U.S policy? Can the United States boldly follow this principle? Would this jeopardize the U.S interests in trade and commerce? How far can the United States go in sacrifi cing its standard of living?

cor-5 Has the Iraq war produced more terrorists? Was the war worth the eff ort?

6 What would have been the result if the United States had concentrated in Afghanistan instead of going to Iraq? Did Al-Qaeda exist in Iraq before the war?

7 And many more

Anthrax Threat

Bioterrorism threats have emerged since October 2001, and the anthrax scare came to Capitol Hill

Th e spores of the bacterium were discovered in several places including Senator Daschle’s offi ce at the Hart Senate Offi ce building in Washington, DC; mail-sorting equipment in Brentwood road, NBC anchor Tom Brokaw’s offi ce in New York; the offi ce of a photo editor of the Sun tabloid in Boca

Raton, Florida; Kansas City, Missouri, and other places Two postal workers in the Washington,

DC area, Th omas Morris, Jr and Ottilie Lundgren, of Oxford, Connecticut, died due to anthrax inhalation September 18 to the middle of December 2001 was a very anxious period for all, not knowing how this scare came about and who was responsible Although the case remained unsolved till August 2008, Bruce Lvins, an army microbiologist, was suspected to be responsible for anthrax attack by mail However, he committed suicide on August 21, 2008 bringing the case

to a possible closure

Th is threat appeared to be more at home than a threat due to a chemical weapon, and a host

of questions can be asked:

1 How can one fi nd out if the threat is anthrax?

2 If exposed to anthrax spores, where should one go?

3 How does one know whether she or he is in a high-or low-risk category?

4 What precautions should be taken before handling mail?

5 How can the public get information on postoffi ces closed due to anthrax contamination?

6 How can one tell if one is exposed to cutaneous anthrax?

7 How can one be sure that the mail is not contaminated by anthrax?

8 People who got infected were in diff erent places such as mailrooms, hospitals, and other areas Did they get infected by mail or by some other method?

9 Are there enough medical facilities to cope with a major threat? How should the healthcare personnel respond in case of an emergency?

10 What should a person do to get prepared to deal with an anthrax scare?

11 How resistant are the spores?

In 1979, the city of Sverdlovsk in the former Soviet Union experienced an anthrax outbreak Th ere was a diff erence of opinion regarding the source of anthrax While the Soviet Union believed

it was from contaminated meat, the U.S sources maintained that it was due to a leak from an anthrax-manufacturing facility Th is epidemic claimed 68 lives and 17 suff ered skin infections In all likelihood, the spores of anthrax spread as an aerosol, and aff ected people close to the manufacturing facility It is reported that there has been only 18 cases of anthrax between 1900 and 1976 (cnn.com/health, October 5, 2001).

As we see from these six examples, the motivation in all cases appears to be political, one way or the other, either internal or external to the state Th e profi le of the individual or individuals involved has not been analyzed to draw conclusions to help identify future terrorists Except in the case of the Tokyo subway incident, the individuals involved were not highly educated and technically skilled persons, but had some practical experience All cases are of chemical terrorism in nature, and the chemicals used could be purchased or synthesized It is evident that the chemicals used have a dual purpose as industrial chemicals and chemicals that can be used for terrorist activities

Th ese examples were cited in the fi rst edition of this book, and we have left them as presented earlier After the publication of this book came the Iraq war On March 19, 2003, the Iraq war started, Saddam Hussein fell on April 9, 2003, and was captured on December 13, 2003, executed

on December 30, 2006, close to 2 million Iraqis have become refugees, 3564 American and 281 allied troops have lost their lives, 111 troops have died of self-infl icted wounds, and close to 35,000 troops have been wounded as reported by the U.S Department of Defense (USDOD) the data and is shown in Table 1.4

Although the Iraq war was started on the premise that Saddam Hussein possessed WMDs, and we wanted to destroy these WMDs, it has now turned out to be a war on terrorism But it is not clear whether this war has

1 Reduced/increased the global threat of terrorism

2 Been useful in identifying the character and boundaries of the threat

3 Nurtured homegrown terrorists

4 Shown that there are better methods of reducing global terrorism

Table 1.4 Wounded and Medical Evacuations

Air Force Total

Wounded—no medical air transport

5 Revealed the magnitude of human and economic losses

6 Managed to show people beyond the Western Hemisphere that democracy and market economy

is the answer for all evils

7 Justifi ed that diplomacy is better than armed confl ict (President John Kennedy used diplomacy instead of armed confl ict during the Cuban Missile Crisis against the advice of the military)

8 Impacted the coalition of other countries with the United States on policies aff ecting the world events in future

9 Helped to design counterterrorism strategies and methods

10 And many more

One thing is certain that we can only hope to contain terrorism but not eliminate it completely

We need to be extremely cautious in our approach, and devise methods to counter terrorism through education, economic uplift, a sense of participation but not dictation in the aff airs of other countries, democratization through the will of the people and not by stick and carrot approach, selfl essness and not selfi shness (this is what may happen in Pakistan with the recent elections), humility and not arrogance, and so on

6 AP Schmidt and AI Jongman Political Terrorism, Transaction Books, Amsterdam, 1988.

7 Federal Bureau of Investigation, National Security Division, Terrorism in the United States, Report

1998, 1999

What and why is terrorism? What can be done about it? Terrorism is undeniably horrifi c It kills, maims, and destroys property for political purposes Few praise terrorism in itself, not now and not in the past Nevertheless, the practice has persisted for literally thousands of years In some ways, terrorism is more horrifying than other awful forms of violence, including war, criminal brutality, and psychopathic mayhem, each of which also has a long history Soldiers in war at least expect violence Victims of crime at least comprehend violence infl icted for material gain Th ose who suff er at the hands of the psychopath may at least attribute loss to fate Victims and witnesses

of terrorist acts, on the other hand, seldom expect the event, cannot easily understand why violence strikes when and where it does, but know that damage is infl icted for a purpose Th ey are made fearful Th at is the immediate purpose

Contemporary possibilities of terrorism are especially frightening due to new technologies Potentially, weapons of mass destruction might be involved Terror is not simply a function

of technology, however Th e means are often simple Motives are usually indirect Eff ects are invariably complex

Th e terrorist wreaks havoc to terrorize those who see or hear about it He expects to gain more from the symbolic consequences of violence than from its destructive physical eff ects Th e terrorist intends to alter states of mind as well as to change things physically At the same time, terror is seldom an end in itself Ultimately, the terrorist aims to infl uence the prospective behavior of others by aff ecting their will to act For this reason, terrorism necessarily represents a political act Political eff ects are almost always complex Eff ective counterterrorism must usually address the politics involved as well as apply physical defense

Terrorism is neither rare nor new Th ousands of terrorist incidents occur around the world in any given year It is more frequent than major wars, less frequent than other eff orts to bring change

by peaceful means Th ere is probably no more of it now than in the past, controlling for growth of societies, but the general public is assuredly more aware of it due in part to advances in international communications Five hundred years ago, North Americans did not know that there was a Europe, much less that terrorist events occurred within it Forty years ago, the Viceque Rebellion was almost entirely unknown outside East Timor at the time that it occurred Today, many terrorist events in far-fl ung corners of the world are instantly recognized around the globe

What Is Terrorism?

Modern usage of the word “terrorism” owes much to the Jacobins during the French Revolution

Th e Jacobin movement advocated democracy in the form of universal suff rage and also proclaimed very high standards of probity for personal and public conduct In September 1793, the radical Committee of Public Safety in France under the leadership of Robespierre and the Jacobins publicly decreed “terror,” called by that name, against enemies of the Revolution to assure the

“reign of virtue.” Agents of the Committee murdered, maimed, and also seized and destroyed property of alleged enemies for nine months until Robespierre’s arrest and execution Foreign and domestic critics of Jacobin political objectives and methods, including Britain’s Edmund Burke and conservative continental European governments, fulminated against the French “Reign of Terror.” Critics spoke louder to later generations than did the Jacobins Th at period of French history is still commonly identifi ed as “Th e Reign of Terror.” Perhaps this helps to explain the persistently perjorative connotations associated with the word “terrorism.”

Terrorism is the subject of much recent study and comment Many book-length treatises and collected works have general import, including Clutterbuck [1], Crenshaw [2], Ford [3], Hoff man [4], Laqueur [5,6], Long [7], Kegley [8], Rubenstein [9], Schlagheck [10], and Wieviorka [11] Contemporary theory is also represented within several important essays, including Adkinson et al [12], Enders and Sandler [13], Hamilton and Hamilton [14], and Merari [15] A few recent studies systematically examine connections between terrorism and other manifestations of political confl ict, including O’Brien [16] Many additional scholarly monographs, collections, and articles speak to specifi c forms of terrorism or specifi c instances of it A few journals devote themselves particularly to the subject, notably including Terrorism and Political Violence Several compendia document recent

terrorist events, including several iterations of the dataset International Terrorism: Attributes of Terrorist Events, which contributes to numerous systematic studies [17] Th e Rand-St Andrews Chronology of Terrorism, also iterated, is another frequently employed compendium [18] Government reports and

individual political commentaries are too numerous to mention

Th e term “terrorism” is generally employed today to denote fearful violence infl icted for explicit political purpose Th ere is disagreement about what else, if anything, to include under the label Consensus upon a strict defi nition exists among most scholars who study terrorism consistently over time and space [19] Governments and public commentators, most of whom attend primarily

to a few attention-getting events of the moment, do not necessarily agree Some seek to excuse some actions that they prefer not to call “terrorism.” Others confl ate terrorism done for political purpose with other forms of reprehensible violence without regard to motive or long-term eff ect Broad and behaviorally inconsistent defi nitions are potentially misleading

It may not be surprising that interested parties in government and the public frequently confound terminology in discussion of terrorism Th e label “terrorism” itself has practical consequences

To call another a “terrorist” is to name one an outcast, given traditional prejudice against the word To call a terrorist by another name—perhaps “freedom fi ghter”—grants superfi cially greater political and moral legitimacy Whether or not to attribute an event to terrorism may even aff ect whether or not insurance policies that exclude acts of terrorism will compensate for losses [20]

It is also not surprising that some interested parties confl ate terrorism with other acts

of violence Terrorism is merely one of several forms of violence that threaten ordered societies Others of these, including simple criminality, may be even more widespread Th e physical eff ects

of violence are damaging no matter the cause It is tempting to clump all bad things together in hope of addressing them all at once

Confl ating terrorism for political purpose with other forms of violence may be seriously misleading Th e motives of terrorism, guerrilla warfare, simple criminal violence, and psychopathology are presumably diff erent Th e terrorist seeks primarily symbolic political eff ect Th e guerrilla warrior seeks, along with other things, to sap the strength of established security forces by unconventional means Th e simple criminal presumably infl icts violence incidentally in pursuit of personal material gain Th e psychopath may have no comprehensible reason at all

In addition, the more broadly is terrorism defi ned, the less clear it is how to counter it [19] Counterinsurgency warfare against guerrillas has well-developed doctrine and training So does criminal justice and peace offi cer training Psychiatrists possess their own theory and methods for dealing with irrationally destructive personal behavior, if given the chance Th ese are diff erent from each other, however and none is suffi cient to the special requirements of curbing politically motivated terrorism Th e methods that one can and ought to use in response to each are not identical Martial law and other suspensions of political liberties may be tolerable in the face of guerrilla warfare but are seldom politically or morally acceptable in response to mere terrorism Counterthreats directed primarily to personal material interest are largely wasted upon the terrorist;

he seeks more than just tribute On the other hand, appeals to political interest and principle are largely wasted upon both the criminal and the psychopath

Th e purpose of this chapter is to briefl y elaborate and extend contemporary theory of terrorism to facilitate comprehensive discussion of technology within terrorism and counterterrorism Technical literature abounds, especially relating to particular technologies, and especially relating to especial needs of law enforcement and military defense Very little has been done since Wilkinson [21] comprehensively and explicitly related technology to terrorism, strictly defi ned

For present purposes, the term “terrorism” is defi ned strictly and in accordance with present scholarly convention “Terrorism represents a publicized program of episodic violence targeted upon noncombatant persons and property for purpose of aff ecting political attitudes and behavior.” Publicity is essential to terrorism’s purposes, even if limited to word of mouth, to communicate demands, and to signal accomplishments Terrorism normally involves a succession of destructive events It is diffi cult to change attitudes and behavior by means of a single isolated act At the same time,

it is customary to distinguish episodic terrorism from continuous military campaigns, including