SUBTITLED AUTHENTIC VIDEOS AND INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY LEARNING a STUDY AMONG EFL HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THANH HOA

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAININGVINH UNIVERSITY NGUYEN THI THANH HUYEN SUBTITLED AUTHENTIC VIDEOS AND INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY LEARNING: A STUDY AMONG EFL HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THANH

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

VINH UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN THI THANH HUYEN

SUBTITLED AUTHENTIC VIDEOS AND INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY LEARNING:

A STUDY AMONG EFL HIGH SCHOOL

STUDENTS IN THANH HOA

Field: Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching

Code: 60.14.01.11

MASTER’S THESIS IN EDUCATION

Supervisor: Dr Tran Thi Ngoc Yen

Nghệ An, 2017

This study was set out to determine if the use of subtitled English videosenhances EFL high school students’ incidental vocabulary learning Thestudents participating in the experiment aged around 16 years old and weredivided into three groups, one being the control group and the other two theexperimental groups During the treatment time, each experimental group wasasked to watch short video clips, either with English subtitles or dual subtitles Avocabulary level test was used as the pre- and post-treatment test to determinewhether watching these videos played a role in the participants’ vocabularylearning The data revealed that the three groups did better in the post-test, butthere was a significant difference between the experimental groups and thecontrol group It was also found that the two experimental groups did similarlywell The data collected from the questionnaire showed that the use of subtitledauthentic videos motivated EFL students’ vocabulary learning In addition,participants have positive attitudes toward learning from subtitled videos, bothinside and outside schools’ boundaries The study suggested that subtitledvideos can be used as an effective learning tool in the second languageclassroom

I would like to express my deep gratitude to my supervisor, Dr TRAN THINGOC YEN, who I believe is the most wonderful supervisor, for her valuabletime, suggestions, guidance, warm encouragement, and continuous supportthroughout this study Without her help, my study would not have beencompleted

I also wish to thank the students who participated in my study Without theirhelp, this study could not have been successful

Finally, I would like to delicate this work to my colleagues and family, whohave been always supporting me with love and sympathy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ABSTRACT ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES vi

LIST OF FINGERS viii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aim of study 1

1.3 Research questions 1

1.4 Scope of study 2

1.5 Thesis design 2

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 3

2.1 Vocabulary 3

2.1.1 Definition 3

2.1.2 Word aspects 3

2.1.3 The role of vocabulary 5

2.1.4 Assessing EFL learners’ vocabulary level 6

2.2 Vocabulary learning and teaching 7

2.2.1 Methods and techniques to teach vocabulary 7

2.2.2 Principles for teaching vocabulary 9

2.2.3 Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition 10

2.2.3.1 The influence of NL 10

2.2.3.2 FL anxiety 13

2.2.3.3 Motivation and FL vocabulary learning 15

2.3 Literature on using subtitled videos for language learning 18

2.3.1 Defining ‘authentic video’ 18

2.3.2 Defining subtitles 19

2.3.2.1 Inter-lingual subtitles 19

2.3.2.2 Intra-lingual subtitles: 20

2.3.2.3 Reversed subtitles 20

2.3.2.4 Dual subtitles 21

2.4 Related theories of language learning 21

2.4.1 The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis 21

2.4.2 The Affective Filter Hypothesis 22

2.4.3 Incidental Learning 23

2.5 Vocabulary learning through subtitled videos 24

2.5.1 Intra-lingual subtitle videos 24

2.5.2 Dual subtitle videos 25

2.5.3 The effects of subtitled videos on second language learning 26

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 29

3.1 Introduction 29

3.2 Participants 30

3.3 Materials 31

3.3.1 The video clip and selection criteria 31

3.3.2 The Vocabulary Level Test 32

3.3.3 Multiple-choice opinion survey 34

3.4 Data collection procedure 35

3.5 Coding schemes 36

3.5.1 The Vocabulary Level Test 36

3.5.2 Opinion survey 36

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 37

4.1 Results 37

4.1.1 General English test results 37

4.1.2 The VLT results 39

4.1.2.1 Experimental groups’ results 39

4.1.2.2 Control groups’ results 43

4.1.3 The improvement compared between control group and the two experimental groups in VLT scores 46

4.2 Attitudes about Learning from Subtitles 47

4.2.1 Part one: Discover the respondents' English language video viewing habits .47

4.2.2 Part Two: Subtitles preference 47

4.2.3 Part three: Subtitled video and autonomous learning 48

4.3 Discussion 49

4.3.1 The effect of using subtitled video clips on vocabulary acquisition 49

4.3.1.1 Vocabulary Level Test( VLT) results 49

4.3.1.2 The role of the audio-visual materials 54

4.3.1.3 Possible factors related to the input 56

4.3.2 Participants’ attitudes towards learning from subtitled videos: 57

4.3.2.1 The questionnaire survey results 57

4.3.2.1.1 General attitudes towards learning from subtitled videos 57

4.3.2.1.2 Subtitle Preference 61

4.3.2.2 Subtitled video and autonomous learning 62

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 59

5.1 Summary of the study 59

5.2 Limitations of the study 62

5.3 Suggestions for the study 63

5.4 Implications for future research 64

APPENDIX A 68

APPENDIX B: 72

APPENDIX C 75

APPENDIX D 77

Questionnaire survey( English version) 77

APPENDIX E 78

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4 1: Scores on the general English test for all participants: The control

group and The experimental groups 48

Table 4 2 The average total scores and standard deviations of general English

test in the experimental group and the control group 49

Table 4.3 Pre- and post-scores on the Vocabulary Level Test for the English

LIST OF FINGERS

Figure 1 Intra-lingual subtitles 32

Figure 2 Dual subtitles 33

Figure 3 Score rate on the general test for the English subtitle group 49

Figure 4 Score rate on the general test for the Dual subtitle group 50

Figure 5 Score rate on the general test for the Control group 50

Figure 6 Score rate on the pre treatment test for the English subtitle group 52

Figure 7 Score rate on the pre treatment test for the Dual subtitle group 52

Figure 8 Score rate on the post treatment test for the English subtitle group 54

Figure 9 Score rate on the post treatment test for the Dual subtitle group 54

Figure 10 Score rate on the pre treatment test for the control group 56

Figure 11 Score rate on the post treatment test for the control group 56

Figure 12 VLT Gain by All the Three Groups 57

Figure 13 The respondent’s English Language Video Viewing Habit 58

Figure 14 Preferring Vocabulary Learning from Subtitled Video 59

Figure 15 The Effectiveness of Subtitles 59

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

As an English teacher, I am fortunate to have access to multimediatechnology for both in my teaching and searching I have made a great effort tokeep abreast with these developments by using technology to create and exploitlearning opportunities for my students

I would like to encourage students’ interest in subtitled authentic videosand make them feel confident when using such videos as learning tools It’s theteacher’s duty to put students in a position where they are capable of increasingtheir knowledge of vocabulary independently of the teacher by looking at thesubtitled words in meaningful and stimulating circumstances

I decided to carry out the current study to determine whether subtitledauthentic videos could be effective vocabulary learning tools for Thanh HoaEFL high school students

1.2 Aim of study

This study aimed to demonstrate that watching the English subtitledvideos will improve EFL high school students’ knowledge of Englishvocabulary and to determine whether the participants felt that the subtitlesaccompanying the treatment video motivate them

1.3 Research questions

This research aims to answer the following questions:

- How does the use of English subtitled videos affect EFL high schoolstudents’ vocabulary learning?

- Will the use of English subtitled videos help to motivate EFL highschool students to learn English?

1.5 Thesis design

The thesis consists of five chapters Chapter 1, Introduction, includesrationale for the study, the aims, methods, scope, and design of the study.Chapter 2 comes the second, in which a literature review was presented Chapter

3, the study comes next with the responsibility for specifying the factors for theresearcher to collect and process the study data Chapter 4 consists of findingsand discussion, in which the data was described and discussed Chapter 5 comeslast A summary of the study, the limitations of the study, and suggestions andimplications for further research are also mentioned in the last chapter

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Vocabulary

2.1.1 Definition

Vocabulary is the words of a language But what is a word? Although itseems likely that “everyone knows what a word is” (Carter & Mc Carthy, 1988,p.4), for academic research purposes, at least, sometimes the meaning is soclear

Words are recognitions of lexemes (Carter, 1998) A lexeme is the basicform of a word that is listed in the dictionary, and is the root of all the variations

of that word The lexeme DO, for example, comprises all of the grammaticalconjugations of that verb in terms of person (does, do) and tense (do, doing, did,done) Lexemes can also be” prefabricated chunks” of language, i.e multi-worditems that are stored and recalled in a grammatically unanalyzed form (Schmitt

& McCarthy 1997)

In the current paper, when talking of “increases to English vocabularyknowledge”, by “vocabulary” I mean “words” and by “words”, I mean therealizations of lexemes The focus of the current research is on single words (asopposed to “prefabricated chunks” in this sense

2.1.2 Word aspects

According to vocabulary acquisition literature, “knowing” a word impliesmore than just meaning identification and form familiar (Johnson & Pearson,1984; Nagy & Scott, 2000, Schmitt & McCarthy, 1997) The nature of wordknowledge can be described as multi-fated, multi-demensional, incremental andhaving a receptive/ productive duality That is, word knowledge is gainedincrementally, as each encounter with a word contributes to the depth ofknowledge of the multi-dimensional aspects For examples, often one canunderstand or recognise a word encountered in speech or in written text, but are

unable to use it in our own production of the language (Schmitt, 2001) Thissituation indicates that word knowledge has various scopes; understanding andrecognising a word when reading or listening to spoken language is known as

‘receptive knowledge’, whereas being able to use a word in discourse is

‘productive knowledge’ Different aspects of the word knowledge have beenidentified (Schmitt, 2001), including:

- The meaning(s) of the word

- The written form of the word

- The spoken form of the word

- The grammatical behaviour of the word

- The collocations of the word

- The register of the word

- The associations of the word

- The frequency of the word

Richard (1976), adds further dimensions, such as:

- The limitations of use of the word

- The place of the word in a network of association

An understanding of most of the above aspects of words is required bylearners in order for them to be competent with the use of a word across a widerange of language use situations It is worth noting that different types of wordknowledge are not necessarily acquired simultaneously That is, often, a learnermay know the pronunciation of a word but is unable to spell it correctly This,again, reinforces the incremental nature of word knowledge, as types of wordknowledge are acquired gradually, at variable rates, however, the test used inthis study does not cover all of the aforementioned aspects of vocabularyknowledge The focus of this study is uncovering participants’ knowledge of thesyntactic behaviour of a word, as well as their knowledge of the meanings of

words Participants’ knowledge of the meanings of words can be indicated either

by a synonym or the Arabic equivalent, due to an acceptance of the claim made

by Ellis(1997:133) that “ the acquisition of L2 words usually involves amapping of the new word from onto pre-existing conceptual meanings or ontoL1 translation equivalents as approximation”

2.1.3 The role of vocabulary

The area of vocabulary learning is giving significant attention withinsecond language teaching discourses Vocabulary plays a fundamental role inlanguage learning, as is dedicated in the commonly cited quote, “withoutgrammar little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed”(Wilkin, 1972: 11) For a long time, the emphasis in the second languageclassrooms was on teaching grammar, whereas vocabulary was neglected.However, there has been increased emphasis on the need to equip learners withadequate lexical tools to facilitate their performance of receptive( reading orlistening) and productive skills (speaking and writing) (Schmitt, 2008) Forexample, in terms of receptive skills, without sufficient vocabulary knowledge,learners may face difficulties in reading comprehension (Laufer 1998; Coady etal., 1993) Additionally, with regard to productive skills, without a satisfactoryvocabulary repertoire, learners may be unable to perform communicative taskswhere they have to speak in the language in an interaction Furthermore, acorrelation has been identified between vocabulary size and writing quality(Astika, 1993; Laufer & Nation, 1995) Ellis (2012) also points out that, forbeginner learners with a low proficiency level, input–based tasks where learnersare exposed to and learn vocabulary and other linguistic features are morebeneficial than output-based tasks

Moreover, the importance of vocabulary learning is underpinned by thelexical approach to vocabulary learning, as proposed by Lewis (1993) In this

approach, Lewis argues that second language learners must learn to identifyfrequent lexical chunks of language when they are exposed to authentic secondlanguage input Lewis’ view is derived from what is perceived to be thefundamental role played by vocabulary, as encapsulated in the quote,

“grammaticalised lexis not lexicalised grammar” Here Lewis argues thatmastering a language requires not only a knowledge of grammar and isolatedvocabulary, but also competence in “multi-word prefabricated chunks: (1997:3).The lexical approach helps learners to acquire a rich and diverse vocabulary,which may lead to fluent and accurate production of sentences (Boers et al.,2006) However, it can be argued that films and movies are also rich resourcesfor chunk expressions of language due to introducing authentic use of language

2.1.4 Assessing EFL learners’ vocabulary level

Ever since vocabulary came into the focus of foreign language learningstudies, assessment of word knowledge has been perceived as a fundamentalissue in the research of this domain This part provides an insight into howvocabulary is assessed and what types of validated and reliable instruments exist

in the literature

The Receptive Vocabulary Levels Test is simply referred in the literature

to as Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) It operates with a discrete point measure Itrequires meaning recognition The test was developed by Nation (1990) and itwas validated by Schmitt, Schmitt and Clapham (2001) Words are selectedfrom such corpora as British National Corpus (Kilgarriff, 1997) and theCANCODE (Cambridge and Nottingham Corpus of Discourse in English) up tofive levels: the first 2,000, 3,000, 5,000 and 10,000 most frequent words Theselevels bear importance from a research-based perspective The 2,000-3,000levels contain high-frequency words whose knowledge is necessary foreveryday communication The 5,000 level is the minimal size which learners

can conceive authentic texts The 10,000 level, contains the most common frequency words (Webb, 2010) The fifth level is not grounded on any corpusbut includes items from the University Word List (Xue & Nation, 1984) Thetest-taker sees six words on the left-hand side and three definitions or synonyms

low-on the right-hand side They are expected to match the right-hand side itemswith three of the six words on the left-hand side This means that the taskcontains three distractors In the entire test each level comprises six clusters ofsix words Since the test gives estimates of vocabulary size at 5 levels, it can beapplied for placement purposes and for diagnosis of vocabulary gaps Fourparallel test versions were developed The criterion of the development of thetest was that the definitions are succinct; the test could be completed in thefastest possible time and with the appropriate arrangement of the possibility ofblind guesses could be diminished In the online version of the VLT the test-taker is expected to write the listed six words next to the three definitions Theevaluation of the test is automatically completed With the modified version ofthe online test, Vocabulary Online Recognition Speed Test (VORST) the speed

of word recognition can also be examined (Laufer & Nation, 2001, p.21)

2.2 Vocabulary learning and teaching

2.2.1 Methods and techniques to teach vocabulary

Nowadays methodologists and linguists suggest that teachers can decideand select the words to be taught on the basis of how frequently they are used byspeakers of the language Carter – McCarthy(1991) rightly points out, “Knowing

a word involves knowing its spoken and written context of use; its patterns withwords of related meaning as well as with its collocation partners; its syntactic,pragmatic and discourse patterns; It means knowing it actively and productively

as well as receptively.”: Richards (1976) list the different things teaching need

to know about a word before we can say that they have taught it.These include:

- The meaning(s) of the word

- Its spoken and written forms

- What “word parts” it has (e.g., any prefix, suffix, and “root” form)

- Its grammatical behavior (e.g., its word class, typical grammaticalpatterns it occurs in)

2.2.1.1 Teaching words in the context

Most people agree that vocabulary ought to be taught in context (Nilsen1976; Chastain 1976; Rivers 1968) Words taught in isolation are generally notretained In addition, in order to grasp the full meaning of a word or phrase,students must be aware of the linguistic environment in which the word orphrase appears Setting a good context which is interesting, plausible, vivid andhas relevance to the lives of the learners, is an essential prerequisite forvocabulary teaching as it helps in both engaging the attention of the learners andnaturally generating the target vocabulary Maintaining the context and makingsure the language surrounding the context is easy to comprehend, the teachershould start eliciting the target vocabulary Therefore, in selection ofvocabulary, the teacher must be sure that the words or phrases chosen can beimmediately incorporated into the students' linguistic range Stahl (2005) stated,

“Vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the knowledge of a word not onlyimplies a definition, but also implies how that word fits into the world.”

2.2.1.2 Use video to produce of target vocabulary

Select a video segment that contains a series of actions or visual detail.Provide the learners with a list of target vocabulary words and ask them toconstruct a paragraph that incorporates as many of the words as possible Thisactivity is best done after the learners have seen the video As they learn how touse more vocabulary properly, you will see an improvement in their writing andspeaking Teacher can also show a short film without sound and asking pupils todiscuss what dialogue they would expect to hear Showing a scene from a filmwithout sound and asking pupils to use the facial expression to determineemotion

2.2.2 Principles for teaching vocabulary

However many theories about vocabulary learning process were written ,

it still remains the matter of memory Thus, there are several general principlesfor successful teaching , which are valid for any method According to Wallace,

1988 the principles are:

- Aim – what is to be taught, which words, how many

- Need – target vocabulary should respond students’ real needs andinterests

- Frequent exposure and repetition

- Meaningful presentation – clear and unambiguous denotation orreference should be assured

Learning vocabulary is a complex process The students’ aim to bereached in learning vocabulary process is primarily their ability to recall theword at will and to recognize it in its spoken and written form Generally,knowing a word involves knowing its form and its meaning at the basic level Indeeper aspects it means the abilities to know its (Harmer 1993):

- Meaning, i.e relate the word to an appropriate object or context

- Usage, i.e knowledge of its collocations, metaphors and idioms, as well

as style and register (the appropriate level of formality), to be aware of anyconnotations and associations the word might have

- Word formation, i.e ability to spell and pronounce the word correctly, toknow any derivations (acceptable prefixes and suffixes),

- Grammar, i.e to use it in the appropriate grammatical form

2.2.3 Factors affecting vocabulary acquisition

More than 40 years ago, the question was raised by Gardner and Lambert(1972, p 131) as to how it was possible that some learners learned easily and forsome it was an impossible adventure to learn a foreign language (FL) undersimilar circumstances Since then the question has been asked several times andnow it appears obvious that every learner is able to learn a FL but with regard topace and simplicity there are huge differences The conclusion has been drawnthat knowing a FL is not only the result of direct teaching but learners’achievements depend on many factors Individual differences in the field of FLlearning have been elaborated on by Dörnyei (2009), Larsen-Freeman and Long(1991), Ligthbown and Spada (2006), Skehan (1989) As regards vocabulary,factors influencing its learning is explored in the subsequent sections and anattempt is made to model vocabulary learning by using the most applicablesecond language acquisition (SLA) model for this construct (EFL vocabularylearning)

2.2.3.1 The influence of NL

An issue that has been in focus concerning FL learning is the role played

by native language (NL) It has been stated that the adequate development of NLabilities determine the success of FL learning (Birdsong, 2006, p 28; Dörnyei &Skehan, 2003, p.592) The similarities of FL learning to the shifts that childrenexperience in the NL learning process has also been researched The obvious is

noted by Kersten (2010) that the FL lexicon is generally smaller than the NLlexicon, therefore, learners do not have the same associations and connectionsbetween words Singleton (1999, p 518) describes four stages in thedevelopmental process of learning NL words up to the age of 24 months: (1)cooing at the age of one-four months, (2) babbling that is a combination ofvowel-like and consonant-like sounds from eight months, (3) one-word-utterance stage when meaningful one-word utterances are formed at thebeginning of two years of age, (4) at the age of 18-24 months the child iscapable of producing two-word utterances FL vocabulary learning is considered

as a slow process that stretches over a lifespan (Augustin Llach, 2011; Bordag,Kirschenbaum, Opitz & Tschirner, 2014; Clark, 2009; Meara, 1987) In thisprocess of FL lexical learning new forms are learned in the midst of associationwith new meanings According to Singleton (1999, p 28) the FL learner learnsnew words to refer to old concepts notwithstanding the new concepts that lack inthe NL also must be learned and already existing concepts need to be constantlymodified Whereas Singleton (1999, p 98) describes NL word learningprocesses, Levelt (1989, p 28) determines how FL words are learned throughthe knowledge of NL words Levelt (1989, p 44) proposes a model thatconstitutes three stages in the process of FL word learning with the aid of NLwords: (1) formal stage when the formal characteristics of the NL word isgrounded, (2) NL lemma mediation stage when the NL lemma is copied onto the

FL entry, and (3) FL integration stage when the FL semantic, syntactic andmorphological characteristics are juxtaposed onto the FL lexical entry Anextensively detailed analysis of this briefly described process is given in Jiang(2000) Four German YLs in a naturalistic setting were investigated (Wode,Rhode, Gassen, Weiss, Jekat, & Jung, 1992) Several differences were pointedout between NL and FL vocabulary learning NL vocabulary growth is rather

slow until the first 50 words then there is acceleration in the process contrary to

FL vocabulary development which is considerably rapid initially but it losesspeed and is usually slow after the first 2,000 words Another focus of research

is the case of false cognates, i.e., lexical items that have overlappingorthographic/phonological traits but no semantic overlap Janke and Kolokonte(2015, p 146) came to the conclusion that the French participants learningEnglish in their study had extreme difficulty in identifying correct meaning Thisfinding gives support to the assumption that the NL might negatively influence

FL vocabulary learning Nakai, Lindsay and Ota (2015, p 48) had similarfindings with Greek and Japanese speakers of English when they investigatedhomophone effects in FL spoken-word recognition If this fossilization of inter-language is inevitable, the question arises as to whether the exclusive use of thetarget language dictated by the principles of communicative language teachingfacilitate or hinder vocabulary learning Intra-lingual methods involveexplanation of target words in FL, exploiting linguistic context, givingsynonyms and definitions whereas inter-lingual methods involve the use oftranslations and definitions given in NL Notwithstanding the goal ofcommunicative language teaching to use the target language, the NL is present

in the learners’ minds no matter whether teachers accept that or not (Liu, 2008,

p 65) It is also posited by Liu (2008, p.67) that “adult FL learners often do nothave as much contextualized input as children do, which makes the extractionand integration of lexical meanings difficult.” He further claims that there ishardly any necessity to learn new meanings whilst learning FL words He arguesthat the presence of an existing NL system renders adult vocabulary learningdifferent from NL vocabulary learning When children learn their NL they learnthe concepts at the same time So meaning and concept are inseparable NLword recall is spontaneous and effortless as opposed to FL word learning which

little semantic or conceptual development accompanies This is congruence withwhat Clark (2004, p 472) sheds light on, namely ”when children learn a firstlanguage, they build on what they know – conceptual information thatdiscriminates and helps conceive categories for the objects, relations and eventsthey experience.” Thus when first conceptual information is established bychildren, then linguistic representations are added This is likely to take place inthe process of vocabulary learning When learners encounter with a new FLword they set up conceptual information before they add linguisticrepresentations Similar to the learning of grammar, the assertion might bemade that lexical forms are also fossilized Jiang contends (2000, p 58)vocabulary learning constitutes three stages: (1) the formal stage; (2) the NLlemma mediation stage; and (3) the FL integration stage In the first stage, theformal stage, only a lexical entry is established In the second stage, the NLlemma mediation stage, both the lemma information the word’s NL counterpartand the FL lexeme information are taken on by the FL word In the final stage,the FL integration stage, the integration of FL information (i.e., semantic,syntactic, morphological specifications) into the lexical entry takes place

2.2.3.2 FL anxiety

Besides cognitive factors, listed in the previous section, other factors such

as affective factors, might also exert an influence on vocabulary learning.Anxiety, for example, is a widely researched construct which is hypothesized tocorrelate negatively with lexical pickup rate Horwitz and Cope (1986, p 128)assert that FL anxiety is a special type of anxiety According to MacIntyre(1999, p 24) FL anxiety is a negative emotional reaction during the learning of

an FL FL anxiety is experienced when the non-native speakers face the need ofusing an FL FL anxiety is not a general anxiety coming from the personality,but it is related to FL learning and FL use contexts Two types of FL learning

anxiety are discerned that are labelled as anxiety-transfer and special anxiety inthe literature (MacIntyre, 1999) FL anxiety-transfer means the transfer of theperceivable anxieties into the FL learning context (Spilberger, 1983) whereasthe special FL anxiety MacIntyre and Gardner (1994) can only be in conjunctionwith the context of FL learning In spite of the fact that FL learning anxiety is abroadly researched domain of SLA research, a considerably small number ofstudies have been published as regards Learners (Bacsa, 2014) The relationshipbetween language aptitude and FL learning anxiety was investigated byRobinson (2001) and the main finding of the study was that a lower languageaptitude resulted in higher FL learning anxiety Csizér and Dörnyei (2005) assertthat a higher FL language anxiety might have a negative influence on languagelearning in the long run This means that higher anxiety is likely to negativelyaffect FL vocabulary learning Khan (2010, p 202) investigated the negativeeffects of language anxiety on vocabulary learning In a control groupexperiment where the groups were exposed to different amount of anxiety it wasdiscovered that the treatment groups that were under a great deal of anxiety(being recorded by a camera) suffered huge deficits in vocabulary learningcompared to the control group that did not experience any type of anxiety Weakbut significant negative correlation was found by Mihaljevic Djigunovic (2010)with Croatian Learners’ English proficiency and anxiety Three age groups, 7-10-year-olds, 11-14-year-olds and 15-18-year-olds were involved in the study.Ensuing an in-depth analysis of the results, the researcher revealed that theyoungest group had a fear from making mistakes and saying words incorrectlyduring class The teachers were also named as a source of anxiety due to the factthat they were too strict or ironic It could be concluded that the teacher’sstrictness definitely does not positively contribute to word learning These

findings are in line with those of Nikolov (2003) who highlighted that teacherswould have a major role in neutralizing the processes eliciting anxiety

To sum up this section, it can be stated that FL learning anxiety is aspecial type of anxiety It is related to the special fields of FL learning FLvocabulary learning FL learning anxiety can only be interpreted with respect tothe interactions of the different variables; thus its effect is worth examining withcareful consideration

2.2.3.3 Motivation and FL vocabulary learning

FL learning motivation is a driving force to learn a new language which is

in conjunction with the desire for the knowledge of the new language, a positiveattitude towards the new language, and an effort (Gardner, 1985) Even thoughmotivation has cognitive component such as goal setting, I consider motivation

in the context of my research an affective variable Motivational orientation can

be defined as the combination of reasons that contribute to learning a language(Noels, Pelletier, Clément, & Vallerand, 2000) Several conditions are necessaryfor the successful learning of a new language: a learning opportunity, languageaptitude, a good teacher, and learning strategies As vocabulary is part of thecommunicative competence, all these listed factors relate to vocabulary Theresearch of FL learning motivation is an autonomous research field; nevertheless

it has developed in the past 30 years by ensuing and integrating the main line ofmotivational psychology Four main stages of FL learning motivation wereidentified (Ushioda & Dörnyei, 2012): (1) the socio-psychological period (1959-1990) that is hallmarked by Gardner who posited that FL learning motivationhad social and psychological dimensions By the 1990s new perspectives into

FL motivation opened up and new light was shed on further research (Skehan,1989), (2) the cognitive situative-period (1990s) which can be described throughtwo main trends On the one hand cognitive theories served as the underpinnings

of FL motivation studies, on the other hand a new research direction was takenfrom the macro-perspective of learners’ general language learning towardsspecific situation-dependent language learning contexts (Williams & Burden,1997), (3) the process oriented period (at the turn of the millennium) whosestudies differ from the period prior to this in that a new emphasis was laid on thetime-perspective, the shifting of motivation Dörnyei and Ottó’s (1998) process-model is classified into three stages: pre-actional, actional, and post-actionalstage, (4) the present, ongoing period, the socio-dynamic period that emphasizesthe cyclical and dynamic trait of FL learning motivation By integrating twosignificant theoretical approaches outlined in research focusing on the self,Dörnyei (2005) tries to conceptualize a new model of FL learning motivation:the possible selves theory of Markus and Nurius (1986) and self-concept (idealand ought-to self) model of Higgins (1987) This theory can be totally related to

FL vocabulary learning as vocabulary is part of general language knowledge.According to Dörnyei’s (2005) theory, three factors enhance the motivation of

FL learning: (1) the ideal L2 self of the learners that concerns how the learnersees themselves as a language learner in the future, (2) the ought-to L2 self that

is in conjunction with what the learner thinks of the expectations of theirenvironment, and (3) L2 learning experiences As for FL vocabulary learningmotivation, Tseng and Schmitt (2008) made an attempt to outline a model ofmotivated vocabulary learning They drew on work undertaken by Dörnyei(2005) on the stages of motivation Tseng and Schmitt (2008) involved sixcomponents into the model: (1) initial appraisal of vocabulary learningexperience, (2) self-regulating capacity in vocabulary learning, (3) strategicvocabulary learning involvement, (4) mastery of vocabulary learning tactics; (5)vocabulary knowledge, and (6) post-appraisal of vocabulary learning tactics.Without elaborating on how these factors are defined, I wish to emphasize that

Dörnyei and Ottó’s (1998) model is efficiently applicable for theconceptualization of the construct of FL learning motivation from theperspective of Learners Learners’ vocabulary learning motivation goes throughthe stages Dörnyei and Ottó (1998) sectioned motivational processes into: pre-actional, actional, and post-actional In an ideal case, EFL Learners’ first setgoals and enact the intention of learning a word then they appraise their ownprogress with the learning of the words and in the final stage they look forfeedback and elaborate on strategies and standards to retain the word As forempirical studies on the correlation between motivation and FL word learning,two instances can be cited Wood and Attfield (2005, p 22) assert that gamesand play can positively empower vocabulary enhancement They highlight theprinciple that playful activities in the language classroom influence attitudes ofchildren towards learning Motivation and its correlations with vocabularylearning amongst Learners was also explored by Chou (2014) in Taiwan Aquery was made as to what degree motivating teaching techniques (use ofsongs, games and stories) fostered the uptake of EFL vocabulary of primaryschool participants (n=72) of ages ten and twelve years old According to thefindings of the study, games, songs and stories motivate vocabulary learning ofLearners Fontecha (2014) investigated the correlation between Learners’receptive EFL word knowledge and motivation The participants were a group

of 183 Spanish-speaking learners in their 2nd grade of Spanish secondaryeducation (aged around 13-14 years old) and a group of 55 Spanish-speakingEFL learners in their 5th grade of primary education (aged around 10-11 yearsold) The main objective of this research is to determine whether there exists anykind of relationship between the number of words learners know receptively andtheir motivation towards English as a Foreign Language (EFL)

To sum it up, a multitude of factors play a role in the enhancement of FLvocabulary Such cognitive variables as language aptitude, inductive reasoningability, general language proficiency (vocabulary being part of it) and NLvocabulary affect the success of uptake of words Affective variables have alsobeen highlighted as factors influencing FL word learning: motivation andanxiety

2.3 Literature on using subtitled videos for language learning

2.3.1 Defining ‘authentic video’

Authentic videos include “feature films, documentaries, commercials,game shows” (Sherman, 2003) and many other kinds of videos that have notbeen made specially for learners of English Authentic videos are those that havebeen made for the enjoyment or education of native speakers of the language inwhich the videos were produced As such, they tend to feature dense andupgraded language, and may relate to topics that do not specially cater to theinterests of learners of English as a foreign language (Stempleski, 1992)

Authentic videos are said to present ‘real’ language, not in the sense that

it is unscripted, but in the sense that it is meant for native speakers of thelanguage (Stempleski, 1992) Some go further and suggest that authentic videosprovide ‘slices of living language’ in the sense that the amount of realismencoded in video media is greater than that to be found in either written or audiomedia (Allan, 1985)

Non-authentic videos, on the other hand, such as the well-known Family

Album USA (Kelty, Cooperman, & Lefferts, 1991) tend to feature graded

language, and a slower than average speed of speech They often focus oneducating the viewer about aspects of the target culture, such as life in America

This distinction between authentic and non-authentic videos has beendisputed, however Hambrook (1992) argues that even ‘authentic’ videos exert

control over reality in terms of editing sound and video footage, ‘setting up’events in order to document them (Hambrook, 1992, p 164) Additionally, bothauthentic and non-authentic videos tend to be ‘artificially’ supported by otherteaching materials and activities when used in the classroom (Hambrook, 1992).

2.3.2 Defining subtitles

Subtitles are captions displayed at the bottom of a cinema or televisionscreen, and translate or transcribe the dialogue or narrative (Online OxfordDictionary, 2014) The terms ‘subtitles’ and ‘captions’ are sometimes usedinterchangeably, although there is a slight difference between the two.Technically, subtitles tend to be associated with a translation of the audio track

in written text at the bottom of the screen, whereas captions are usually linked tothe original audio transcription and displayed in written text From thelanguage learning literature on the use of video, four types of subtitles can

be identified: reversed subtitles, Inter-lingual subtitles, intralingua subtitlesand dual subtitles The definitions of these types are as follows:

2.3.2.1 Inter-lingual subtitles

These subtitles are also known as ‘standard subtitles’ or ‘L1subtitles’ In this type of subtitles, the audio track is in the targetlanguage, or the original language of the film or video, and theaccompanying textual display is a translation into the viewer’s nativelanguage Creating Inter-lingual subtitles should be carried out with carefulconsideration, as it crucial to enable accurate understanding Ivarsson &Carroll (1998) in ‘Code of Good Subtitling Practice’, have proposedcertain criteria that should be taken into account when creating subtitles,which are as follows:

- Accurate at a grammatical and lexical level

- Considers the cultural and idiomatic differences of the original source

- Use appropriate register of language

- Written in easily understandable grammatical text

This is the mode of subtitles used in the present study; the followingimage represents how these subtitles are used in this research

2.3.2.2 Intra-lingual subtitles:

These kinds of subtitles are also known as ‘bimodal subtitles’ or ‘L2subtitles’, and refer to the display of a transcription of the sound track in theform of captions This type of subtitle is also investigated in this research, andfigure 2 below represents their usage:

Figure 1

Intra-lingual subtitles

2.3.2.3 Reversed subtitles

This type of subtitle refers to target language textual display of a soundtrack in the viewer’s native language However, this mode of subtitle is notused in the current study.

2.3.2.4 Dual subtitles

Dual subtitles refer to the simultaneous appearance of both viewers’native language, or L1 subtitles, and target language, or L2 subtitles on thescreen This type of subtitle is rarely available in mainstream mediaproduction, such as DVD; DVDs usually offer the option of adding just onesubtitle mode on the screen

Figure 2 Dual subtitles

2.4 Related theories of language learning

2.4.1 The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis

The ‘Comprehensible Input Hypothesis' has beenpropounded by Krashen(1991) as part of his wider theory of foreign language acquisition Krashen

(1991) argues thatforeign languages are acquired when learners are exposed tocomprehensible input The input can be in the form of either oral or writtenlanguage In order to be effective, however, input must be at a level of ‘i+1’,where ‘i’ is the learner’s current level of ability in the target language In otherwords, the input material must be at a slightly higher level than the learner’scurrent level Krashen (1991) argues that exposure to comprehensible input ofthe target language at ‘i+1’ is both necessary and sufficient to cause acquisition

of the language Adding subtitles (either interlingual, intralingual, or dual) to avideo meant for native English speakers would appear to increase the chancesthat non-native English speakers will be able to comprehend the content of thevideo, thus making the video a source of comprehensible input, and leading toforeign language acquisition Neuman and Koskinen (1992) have suggested thatcaptioned (intralingually subtitled) television is a valid form of comprehensibleinput, and increases the second language vocabulary knowledge of its viewersmore effectively than non-captioned television

2.4.2 The Affective Filter Hypothesis

The 'Affective Filter Hypothesis' was developed by Krashen (1982) inconjunction with 'Comprehensible Input Hypothesis', already discussed above(2.5.1) According to Krashen (1982), the affective filter acts as a barrierbetween 'input', i.e the language a learner is exposed to, and 'acquisition', i.e.the ability to process and permanently store the language for later receptive orproductive use The three main factors that contribute to the affective filter aremotivation, self-confidence, and anxiety A student with high motivation, highself-confidence and low anxiety will have a low affective filter, and will be able

to take full advantage of the input they are exposed to, as well as proactivelyseeking out additional input opportunities A student with low motivation, lowself-confidence and high anxiety will have a high affective filter, and will not

be able to effectively process the input they are exposed to, even if it is'comprehensible' Krashen (1982) therefore argues that language teachers shouldaim to foster learning situations that encourage a low-affective filter Authenticvideos have been suggested to be strongly motivational for learners of English(Sherman, 2003; Stempleski, 1992), and to lower the affective filter of foreignlanguage learners (Neuman & Koskinen, 1992)

2.4.3 Incidental Learning

Incidental learning is the process by which something – in this case,foreign language vocabulary is learnt without the individual concerned directingtheir attention specifically toward the act of learning it Incidental learning issynonymous with 'implicit' learning, and the anti thesis of 'explicit' or'intentional' learning

Brown(2007) suggests that the real question is not which of theseprocesses is better than the other, but" under what conditions, and for whichlearners, and for what linguistic elements is one approach, as opposed to theother, advantageous for [second language acquisition]?" (Brown, 2007, p.292)

The 'linguistic element 'under investigation in the current research isvocabulary, and the 'condition' is viewing a subtitled authentic English languagevideo Existing research supports the proposition that the learning of vocabularycan occur incidentally through exposure to subtitled L2 videos

In Neuman and Koskinen's (1992) study for example, it was found thatyoung learners of English were able to incidentally learn vocabulary fromwatching captioned English language videos Similarly, in d'Ydewalle & Van dePoel's (1999) study, young learners of French and Danish were able to learnvocabulary from subtitled videos where no attention was drawn to the languagebefore or during the video viewing In a study conducted by Koolstra & Beentjes

(1999), children told to ‘just watch’authentic videos were still able to acquirenew foreign language vocabulary, even when the videos did not have subtitles

2.5 Vocabulary learning through subtitled videos

There are several empirical studies that examine the relationship betweenwatching subtitled video and vocabulary development These studies havediverse content, either regarding the type of subtitles or the vocabulary testformat In terms of subtitle types, studies investigate the effect of varioussubtitles treatments, such as inter-lingual, intra-lingual, and reversedsubtitles In terms of assessing vocabulary improvement, studies use differentvocabulary test formats, such as multiple choice tests, ‘fill in the blank’,matching target words with their equivalents in the native language, andfinally a ‘vocabulary knowledge scale’, which is the test used by thisinvestigation In the following section, studies will be reported in accordance tosubtitle type

2.5.1 Intra-lingual subtitle videos

A study conducted by Zarei (2009), involving college-level Iranianstudents, aimed to measure the effect on vocabulary recognition and vocabularyrecall of authentic video subtitled in three different modes: interlingual,intralingual and ‘reversed subtitling’, i.e the subtitling of a video in the viewersL2 (English) with the audio in the viewer’s L1(Vietnamese) He found that thedifferences in vocabulary recognition between the intralingual and interlingualsubtitle groups were statistically in significant, but the participants of bothgroups performed better than the participants of the ‘reversed subtitle’ group.Additionally, participants of the ‘intralingual subtitle’ group performedsignificantly better at vocabulary recall tasks than participants of the

‘interlingual subtitle’ group, which inturn performed better than the ‘reversedsubtitle’ group (Zarei,2009) Further research by the same author (Zarei, 2011)

suggests the superiority of intralingual subtitles to interlingual subtitles in gains

to vocabulary production, but fails to show a statistically significant difference

in gains to vocabulary comprehension between the same groups In anotherstudy, respondents claimed to be able to learn new vocabulary from watchingintralingual subtitled videos as they were “able to both hear the words and seethem written” (Stewart & Pertusa, 2004), although in this study actual gains inthe vocabulary recognition of participants who watched intralingual subtitledvideos compared to those who watched interlingual subtitled videos werestatistically insignificant Gains to vocabulary were also shown to be greater forIranian college students who were exposed to an intralingual subtitled videothan those who were exposed to a non-subtitled version of the same video(Harji, Woods, &Alavi, 2010)

2.5.2 Dual subtitle videos

No existing studies that provide evidence for the effectiveness of dualsubtitles as a direct aid to vocabulary acquisition were able to be located.Chang's (2003) research was the only research found that deals with the effect ofdual subtitles on foreign language learning, and her research focused mainly onthe effect of dual subtitles on general comprehension The results of Chang’s(2003) study, which exposed Chinese college students to both familiar andunfamiliar videos in three conditions (either interlingual subtitles, intralingualsubtitles or dual subtitles), suggested that the participants in the‘dual subtitles’condition were better able to understand the content of the videos thanparticipants in the other two conditions The participants were found not to havebeen" overwhelmed by the tri-modal input" (Vanderplank, 2010), despitepreviously hypothesized "limits of human attention" (Neuman & Koskinen,1992) Despite the innovative nature of Chang’s (2003) research, and the somewhat ground breaking nature of her results, no studies that either replicate or

follow on from her research have been located This is probably due to the lack

of general availability of videos with dual subtitles Until the present study,therefore, the question of whether dual subtitles might be a more effective aid tovocabulary learning than either interlingual or intralingual subtitles has not beenaddressed or investigated

2.5.3 The effects of subtitled videos on second language learning

Subtitled video has been broadly utilized in language classrooms, forvarious purposes There are three channels that contribute to conveying thecontent of subtitled video; the aural channel (soundtrack), the verbal visualchannel (subtitles) and the non-verbal visual channel (the visual images)(Austad, 2013) Baltova (1999) points out that the simultaneous existence ofthese three channels reinforces learning more than un-subtitled video, ortexts provided with accompanying images This challenges the previousassumption (Reese &Davie, 1987) that subtitles distract viewer attention andencourage laziness among viewers, as they rely on the textual visual support

of subtitles and ignore listening These assumptions have been furtherchallenged by numerous empirical studies indicating the dual processes ofthe two channels, auditory and visual written text d’Yewalle and DeBruyker (2007) argue that reading standard subtitles is a compulsorybehaviour with paying attention to visual clues In a widely quoted study, Birdand Williams (2002) add further emphasis; as well as arguing that althoughsubtitles are automatically read, the soundtracks are also automaticallyprocessed by viewers Studies by Borras and Lafayette (1994) andVanderplank (1988) also prove that reading and listening co-occur throughprocessing subtitles However, there are some other factors affecting theprocessing of subtitles and the extent to which they may contribute toimproving the ability of language learners The first factor is the degree to

which subtitles are familiar to the language learner; this factor isdiscussed extensively by Danan (2004), who claims that when learners are notfamiliar with subtitles, they may not be able to process them effectively so

as to benefit from them A study conducted by Koolstra and Beentjes (1999)also confirms this perspective; in this study, the researchers made acomparison between Dutch children of two different age groups The first groupwere aged between nine and ten, and received no formal second languageinstruction; the second group were aged between eleven and twelve and receivedformal instruction in the second language Both age groups were dividedinto two groups as one was exposed to subtitled film and the second tonon-subtitled film The age and instruction variables had no effect on theresults, but there was an observable difference in vocabulary gaining betweenthose who watched the films with subtitles and those without in each agegroups One of the interpretations of these findings is that familiarity with usingsubtitles has an important effect as children who are familiar with usingsubtitles while watching film at home, as subtitling is common in theNetherlands performed better that those who are not familiar The secondfactor is the language proficiency level of viewers; the results of researchconcentrating on this area are mixed The findings of a study by Markham(1993) indicate that subtitles are helpful when the video content is complex andabstract For beginners, or low proficiency learners, Guillory (1998) suggeststhat subtitles are effective and facilitative She further claims that key-wordcaptions or subtitles are more helpful than whole sentence subtitles.Additionally, Taylor (2005), compared two groups of Spanish learners; onegroup consisted of first year university Spanish learners, and the other ofthird and fourth year university Spanish learners Both of these groupswere then allocated to a subtitle or non-subtitle group as they watched

Spanish language film In a comprehension test, fourth year students in thesubtitled group outperformed their first year counterparts However, learninglevel had no effect on the groups who were expose to video without subtitles.From this, it can be proposed that learners must already have a certain degree ofcompetence in order to benefit from watching subtitled videos

Finally, subtitle type has also attracted the attention of researchers, anddifferent perspectives exist regarding the type most conductive to learning.Standard subtitles, or Inter-lingual, are found to be useful for those who have notyet established good reading or listening skills in regards to the targetlanguage, either due to their age or proficiency level (Bianchi & Ciabatt, 2008).Another important advantage of standard subtitles is that they preventinaccurate inferences of words meaning (Miterer & MaQueen, 2009) In terms

of intra-lingual subtitles, it is found that they are helpful for advanced learnerswith high level proficiency, have good listening skills, and an ability to readrapidly (Danan 2004 and Markham &Peter, 2003)

Additionally, they are found to facilitate comprehension, particularlywhen the video material is complex; Danan (2004) hereby refers to them as

a ‘hearing-aid’ More importantly, intralingua subtitles can help learners linkthe aural form of the word with the written form Overall, it can be said thatinter-lingual subtitles is more helpful for low proficient learners while learnerswith high proficiency level can get more advantage from intralingua subtitles

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

For this research, two different methods are combined: experiment, andquestionnaire survey According to Dörnyei (2007), using mixed methodsfor research serves various purposes, such as helping the researchers toinvestigate complex educational issues and enriching the researcher’s thoughts,enabling them to draw conclusions Additionally, combining more than onestrategy means that they are able to corroborate each other and hence increasethe validity of the research In relation to following up the experiment with aquantitative data analysis method, as is the case for this study, Dörnyeipoints out that “…Including a qualitative phase to explore the nature of suchprocesses is a natural and potentially highly fruitful design that can greatlyenhance the study’s validity” (2007: 173) It should also be noted that, inthis research, the experiment stage was followed up with a surveycontaining both qualitative, open-ended questions and quantitative, close-endedquestions

Regarding the experiment of this study , the norms and principles ofexperimental study were applied An experimental study can becharacterised as a study in which the quantitative cause-effect relationshipdata is obtained in a scientific way (Dörnyei, 2007) Typically inexperimental study design, participants are assigned to one of two groups, theexperimental group, whose members are exposed to special treatment orcertain condition, and the control group, who receives normal instruction or

operate in standard conditions This distinction marks the point of departurefor a comparison between the two groups, and to measure the effects of theintervention The effects of the intervention are typically measured using a preand post-treatment test format In this research, the intervention is watching avideo with two different subtitles types The participants were assigned to one

of three groups as one was the control group and the other two groups werethe experimental groups The control group was exposed to video clipwithout subtitles and each experimental group was exposed to a video with adifferent subtitle mode The experimental groups were: an Englishsubtitles group; and a dual subtitles group The truly experimental studydesign necessitates the random assignment of a sufficient number ofparticipants, in order to make the average participants across the twogroups comparable However, a truly and entirely experimental study forthis research was not feasible, as the participants are not sufficient toeasily establish an average, and so the researchers instead used a quasi-experimental design solution In this type of experiment, the participants arenot randomly assigned, in order to avoid incomparable groups To this end,certain procedures were put in place; first, the class teacher was asked toevenly distribute students who have high level of English ability, based on theirmonthly exams, among the three groups; second, volunteer participation in thetreatment groups was avoided; finally, all participants undertook a vocabularylevel test for further assurance of groups homogeneity, as well as some otherconsiderations

3.2 Participants

A total of 30 tenth-grade students at Duong Dinh Nghe high schoolagreed to take part in this study The participants were 13 girls and 17 boys,aged between 16 and 17 years old Their native language is Vietnamese,

and so there was no need to exclude any participants As the participants areall under the age of 18, permission was needed from their careers, tosatisfy ethical requirements Thus, a consent form was sent to the parents

of the participants seeking permission for their daughters’ participation in theresearch

At this level, English is a compulsory subject, and students have beenlearning English for eight years; learners in this grade receive Englishinstruction over three sessions per week The Vietnamese educational systemgenerally tends to be quite traditional; among the traditional features of thissystem, firstly, is examination-oriented assessment, in which written examsare the only form of assessment Second, grammatical knowledge of languagepredominates classroom instruction Third, there is a heavy dependence ontextbooks as the only teaching material used in the classroom The assignedtextbook for this level is titled ‘English for Vietnamese’, and is produced

by the Vietnam educational ministry, in collaboration with foreign experts Generally, this book can be characterised as a culturally-oriented book andtends to place a greater emphasis on developing the four key skills

The participants in the current research are referred to as follows:

- Control group ( no subtitle group)

- Dual subtitle group

- English subtitle group

3.3 Materials

To answer the research questions, the following resources were used:

3.3.1 The video clip and selection criteria

During the first phases of this research, the intention was to select a videoclip extracted from a children’s cartoon film, in order that it would beculturally appropriate However, after a deep investigation, this type of