HUỲNH TRỌNG KIM AN INVESTIGATION INTO LEXICAL STYLISTIC DEVICES USED IN “OF MICE AND MEN” BY JOHN STEINBECK AND ITS VIETNAMESE TRANSLATED VERSION... ABSTRACT This research paper aims at
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Language is a medium of communication composed of sounds and graphic symbols The study of language serves a variety of tasks in society Writing depicts sounds on paper, and because writing has many forms and structures, linguists are increasingly interested in studying stylistics The study of stylistics dates back to the classical period, and scholars and writers have continued to be interested in the relationship between language patterns in a text and how the text communicates.
Literature, one of the most powerful forms of language, reflects society and its evolving values, trends, and voices It lets us appreciate, observe, and learn the manners and languages of people from earlier periods, preserving their experiences for new generations Literature is the expression of life through language, and any work, such as a novel, is first and foremost a creation of language Because language is the foundational material source of literature, linguistic craft is central to how literature mirrors reality and reveals human culture.
Reading literature invites readers to grasp its true spirit and deeper meanings, but this task is challenging because it requires understanding literary norms and the historical background of each work Readers can also develop a sense of language through the grammatical and stylistic techniques used in its composition Stylistic devices, also called rhetorical devices or figures of speech, are essential tools that capture attention and keep readers engaged while conveying messages more effectively These devices come in many types, each with distinct characteristics, and literature uses them to make poetic works more sophisticated and persuasive.
John Steinbeck (1902–1968), winner of the 1962 Nobel Prize and numerous other honors, is regarded as one of the world's finest writers, celebrated for his mastery of diverse stylistic devices Among his masterpieces—In Dubious Battle (1936) and The Grapes of Wrath (1939)—Of Mice and Men (1937) is one of his three influential late‑1930s novels about the California laboring class and it became a bestseller upon publication The novel has been translated into Vietnamese and is well worth reading Its enduring appeal rests on a unique storyline, Steinbeck's storytelling talent, and his distinctive use of stylistic devices, including lexical techniques that add to the work's value.
In the Industry 4.0 era, the world is increasingly interconnected and flattened as nations collaborate to advance the economy, science, technology, and education The rapid rise of global interaction aims to build close relationships, exchange experiences, and transmit information across cultures, yet language differences often hinder these objectives Translation thus becomes an essential bridge for cross-cultural understanding, enabling people from diverse backgrounds to learn from one another, form closer friendships, share viewpoints, and access scientific achievements and artistic values However, translation is always challenging: it involves more than transferring words from the source to the target language, it requires preserving the source language’s essence and a broad mastery of both languages Translators must navigate linguistic, literary, aesthetic, and socio-cultural problems, demanding suitable methods This complexity is especially evident in translating literary works, such as those by John Steinbeck, where expressive means carry multi-layered meanings, making the task particularly demanding Consequently, studying lexical stylistic devices used in Steinbeck’s works and their Vietnamese translations presents an exciting and meaningful area for language learning and literary study.
Although numerous studies have examined stylistic devices across a wide range of texts, no research has yet focused on a specific John Steinbeck novel and its Vietnamese translation, creating a gap in the literature This study seeks to fill that gap by examining how stylistic features such as metaphor, imagery, rhythm, and diction are rendered in the Vietnamese version compared with the original text By analyzing the translator's choices and their effects on meaning, tone, and readability, the research aims to reveal patterns of translational strategy, cultural adaptation, and reader reception The findings will contribute to Steinbeck scholarship and translation studies by highlighting the challenges of preserving stylistic nuance across languages and informing future linguistic and literary analyses of translated works.
An investigation into the lexical stylistic devices employed in John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men and in its Vietnamese translation by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi has been conducted to address existing gaps in translation studies The study systematically analyzes word choice, figurative language, and syntactic patterns in the source text and their Vietnamese counterparts, illustrating how lexical decisions shape character voice, tone, and narrative rhythm By comparing original and translated texts and examining translation strategies, the research sheds light on cross-cultural nuances, readability, and the conveyance of cultural context, offering practical insights for translators, linguists, and educators seeking to enhance comprehension and appreciation of Steinbeck's prose in Vietnamese contexts.
Aims and Objectives
This study investigates the lexical stylistic devices used in John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men and analyzes how these devices are rendered in Vietnamese translations By examining diction, imagery, metaphor, and repetition, the research reveals how Steinbeck's linguistic choices shape meaning, tone, and character in the original text The study then assesses Vietnamese translations to identify translation strategies, fidelity, and potential losses in nuance, offering a comparative view of linguistic transfer between English and Vietnamese The findings illuminate cross-linguistic stylistic transfer and provide practical guidance for translators, scholars, and students studying Steinbeck's work in Vietnamese contexts.
This study aims to analyze lexical semantic devices (lexical SDs) in Of Mice and Men, assessing how frequently they occur and what meanings they convey to readers, in order to understand how these devices shape readers’ interpretation of the text.
Secondly, a comparison of these stylistic devices used in the English novel and the Vietnamese translated version is made to find out the similarities and differences between the two versions
Finally, some implications for teaching and learning English and Vietnamese translated version are suggested.
Research Questions
To fulfil the objectives mentioned above, the research attempts to answer the following questions:
1 What are the linguistic features of lexical SDs used in ―Of Mice and Men‖ by John Steinbeck?
2 How similar and different are the linguistic features of lexical SDs in
―Of Mice and Men‖ by John Steinbeck and its Vietnamese translated version by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi?
Scope of the Study
This MA thesis confines its scope to a sub-area of stylistic devices (SDs) and does not attempt to cover all aspects of SDs It examines the linguistic features of lexical stylistic devices (lexical SDs) in John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men The study adopts a focused comparative approach by analyzing these features against a single Vietnamese translation by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi, rather than multiple Vietnamese versions, to illuminate the similarities and differences between the original text and its translation.
Significance of the Study
By analyzing lexical SDs used in the original English novel and its Vietnamese translation, this study aims to illuminate the crucial role lexical devices play in literature It also seeks to provide Vietnamese learners of English with deeper insight into the nature and use of lexical SDs across two languages, fostering cross-linguistic understanding The use of lexical SDs makes literary works more engaging and vivid, stimulating readers’ and listeners’ perceptions of the messages intended by the author Accordingly, this investigation into lexical devices used in Of Mice and Men contributes to both literary analysis and language learning.
Men” by John Steinbeck and its Vietnamese translated version by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi” has been carried out.
Organization of the Study
The following are the five chapters that make up the study:
Chapter 1, Introduction, includes the rationale, the significance of the study, the aims and objectives, the scope of the study, research questions, and the organization of the study
Chapter 2, Literature Review and Theoretical Background, briefly presents the author and the novel, noticeable features of SDs, especially lexical SDs Previous studies from the perspectives are also introduced
Chapter 3, Research design and methodology, consists of research method, research procedures, description of samples, and the study‘s data collecting and analysis procedure
Chapter 4, Findings and Discussion, reports the findings on the linguistic features of lexical SDs, compares their similarities and differences, and documents the frequency with which these SDs appear in John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men and in its Vietnamese translation by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi.
Chapter 5, Conclusion and implications, summarizes the significant findings, draws conclusions and pedagogical implications, limitations and puts forward suggestions for further studies.
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL
Theoretical Background
Style is often defined as a distinctive way of doing things, from ballroom dance to programming, but this article concentrates on literary style—the specific manner of writing literary texts, with spoken language set aside for simplicity This approach highlights the linguistic and rhetorical features that give a text its voice, tone, and effect Stylistics, then, is the scholarly study of these stylistic choices and their impact on meaning and reader perception.
Stylistics first appears in the Oxford English Dictionary in 1882, defined as the science of literary style and the study of its stylistic features Yet the precursors of stylistics—ancient rhetoric and poetics—regard stylistics as a particular mode of expression, the correct adornment of thought In antiquity, poets emphasized the artful arrangement of words and the crafting of figures of speech to achieve specific expressiveness This lineage shows stylistics bridging scholarly analysis and practical craft, from the theoretical study of style to the craft of effective expression.
Stylistics in modern linguistics is a multifaceted approach to analyzing literary texts through linguistic description, aligning with Short’s view that stylistics investigates how language features shape meaning in literature It sits at the intersection of literature and linguistics, emphasizing how an author's literary language contributes to the creation of meaning and how thematic and aesthetic values arise from linguistic forms Galperin’s influential perspective defines stylistics (linguostylistics) as potentially a branch of general linguistics, with two intertwined tasks: first, examining the inventory of language media and their ontological properties that produce a desired utterance effect; second, analyzing discourse styles that are distinguished by the pragmatic aspects of communication, achieved through the selection and arrangement of linguistic means.
Stylistics is a well-established branch of linguistics that examines how specific language features are selected and deployed to convey cognition, emotion, and aesthetic function across different communication contexts, and it analyzes the principles behind these choices as well as their effects on interpretation.
Stylistics involves examining language, with a particular emphasis on its creativity This approach enriches our ways of thinking about language and provides substantial leverage for understanding literary texts (Simpson, 2004).
2.1.2 Stylistic Devices and Functions of Stylistic Devices
Galperin (1977:29-30) defines a stylistic device as follows:
A stylistic device is the deliberate intensification of a language unit’s typical structural or semantic property, whether neutral or expressive, raised to a generalized status and used as a generative model In effect, a stylistic device becomes an abstract pattern—a mold into which any content can be poured.
Galperin (1977) views stylistic devices (SDs) as tools to heighten emphasis, inject freshness into expression, and clarify meaning, making a language unit more vivid and helping writers grab and sustain readers’ or listeners’ attention In texts, SDs function as marked units that carry additional information beyond the base message Galperin suggests that SDs contribute to the semantic and aesthetic dimensions of an utterance, capable of expressing emotive or logical nuances Because SDs carry extra data, they require more cognitive work to decipher their meaning and function Consequently, SDs should be seen as a unique code that readers must be familiar with to interpret them easily.
As Robbins (2007) claims, SDs help language sound more rhythmic, and they can be used in poetry Nevertheless, stylistic devices can be utilized to draw attention to certain areas
According to Galperin (1977), SDs are classified into three main kinds based on their specific features and functions: phonetic, lexical and syntactical SDs
Galperin (1977:123) argues that the stylistic approach to an utterance is not confined to its structure and meaning; the sound of a phrase or sentence can also play a crucial role While most word sounds have little artistic value when considered individually, their combination with other words can acquire a desired phonetic effect Phonetic sound devices (SDs) are classified into subcategories, including onomatopoeia, alliteration, rhyme, and rhythm.
According to Đinh Trọng Lạc and Nguyễn Thái Hòa (1993), phonetic form by itself carries no meaning; however, by examining its acoustic properties and relating them to the content, we can create phonetic symbols that enhance expressive power.
Galperin (1977:138) maintains that words in context can take on new lexical meanings not found in dictionaries, which we call contextual meanings, and he posits an interrelationship between dictionary meaning and contextual meaning, with the latter to some extent always depending on the former; when deviation from the acknowledged meaning escalates to alter the recognized logical meanings, we register a stylistic device (Galperin, 1977:138) There are several lexical stylistic devices, including metaphor, metonymy, irony, epithet, oxymoron, simile, euphemism, hyperbole, and allusion, though the MA thesis here will concentrate on seven types: metaphor, metonymy, irony, simile, euphemism, hyperbole, and allusion, beginning with a Metaphor.
Galperin (1977:139-140) defines metaphor as the transference of a quality from one object to another, a sense that the word’s etymology illuminates He explains that a metaphor becomes a stylistic device when two distinct phenomena—objects, events, ideas, or acts—are brought to mind simultaneously by projecting part or all of the inherited features of one onto the other, features that the second object does not possess by nature In short, metaphor is an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things that share certain characteristics.
(1) Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still
Metaphors such as 'Mother' evoke nursing, weaning, and caregiving, while 'Nature' does not convey the same immediate meaning; nature refers to all plants, animals, and things in the universe not made by humans and can be thought of as a place where living beings reside and are protected Although there is no true similarity between these notions, there is a recognizable identification Metaphors, like all stylistic devices, can be classified by their degree of unexpectedness According to Galperin (1977), there are three types of metaphors: genuine, trite, and sustained.
Genuine metaphors are metaphors that are entirely unexpected, i.e unpredictable The following is an example that may serve as an illustration of genuine metaphor:
(2) The leaves fell sorrowfully (Galperin, 1977:140)
Identifying the example described above is not straightforward, yet the image of falling leaves often mirrors the body language of a sorrowful person When someone is in a terrible mood, they may sway their body or tilt their head back and forth, a visible expression of distress that links natural imagery to inner emotion and helps readers grasp how mood influences physical movement.
Trite metaphors are overused expressions regularly employed in speech and, as a result, are often catalogued in dictionaries as expressive language, making them predictably familiar By contrast, genuine metaphors are seen as part of language in action, while trite metaphors belong to language as a system and function as conventional language units in reference works Examples of trite metaphors include floods of tears, a storm of indignation, a flight of fancy, a gleam of mirth, a shadow of a smile, and a ray of hope (Galperin, 1977:142).
Another type of metaphor is called sustained or prolonged A sustained metaphor compares two dissimilar items that persist over the course of a paragraph or lines in poetry
At that moment his cup of satisfaction was so full that he felt he could spare a drop from its contents, even to sprinkle on the dust along the by-path his little daughter would tread.
(Dickens, ―Dombey and Son‖, cited in Galperin, 1977:142)
Review of Previous Studies
In this section, a review of literature on previous studies relating to SDs as well as titles will be covered
Stylistic devices are used in literature across all languages to achieve excellence in writing; they also make texts more engaging and help capture and sustain readers’ attention Today, stylistic devices are studied by many domestic and international linguists and researchers.
Across the field, renowned linguists and grammarians worldwide have conducted extensive research in linguistics, including studies on SDs, to explore the many facets of these phenomena and to clarify their theoretical and practical significance These efforts illuminate how theoretical insights inform real-world language use, from language education and assessment to natural language processing and policy By examining SDs, scholars seek to identify patterns, test linguistic rules, and understand how structure shapes communication Together, this body of work demonstrates the power of linking rigorous theory with practical application to advance both scholarly understanding and everyday language use.
―Stylistics‖ by Galperin (1977), ―A handbook of rhetorical devices‖ by Harris
Drawing on theoretical insights from 2003 and on foundational texts such as Wales’s A Dictionary of Stylistics (2001) and Lunsford et al.’s The SAGE Handbook of Rhetorical Studies (2009), researchers have devoted substantial effort to analyzing stylistic devices in their theses, illustrating how stylistic choices influence meaning, tone, and rhetorical effect in academic writing.
Fadaee's 2011 study analyzes symbols, metaphors, and similes in George Orwell's Animal Farm to determine how figures of speech influence the author’s style and the reader’s comprehension The findings indicate that similes are essential because they convey figurative meanings beyond their literal sense, shaping interpretation and tone While the article helps readers understand how metaphors and similes function in a novel, its focus is limited to metaphor and simile, leaving other stylistic devices unexplored Additionally, although Fadaee is Iranian, the study does not compare translations with the original to assess potential losses or gains in translation, a gap that could help Iranian readers better appreciate the story.
Munir (2014) analyzes Barack Obama’s second inaugural address using a descriptive qualitative approach to explain how figurative language functions and to identify the sentence-level lexical and syntactic structures of the speech The study finds that Obama employs seven types of SDs—simile, metaphor, personification, metonymy, paradox, hyperbole, and synecdoche—with metaphor being the most frequent (16 instances) and simile the least (only once) The extensive use of figurative language helps convey new meanings, emphasize central ideas, deepen the audience’s understanding of key concepts, and create vivid mental images The thesis is substantial and broad-ranging enough to cover the field, and the research underscores the critical role of SDs in inaugural rhetoric, noting that their meanings and values differ from those in literary works.
SDs in Vietnamese linguistics have attracted attention from several scholars, including Đinh Trọng Lạc, author of 99 phương tiện và biện pháp tu từ trong tiếng Việt (1994); Đinh Trọng Lạc with Nguyễn Thái Hòa, co-authors of Phong cách học tiếng Việt (1995); and Cù Đình Tú, author of Phong cách học và đặc điểm tu từ tiếng Việt These studies explore Vietnamese stylistics, rhetorical devices, and discourse features, offering essential insights into how SDs function in Vietnamese communication and supporting ongoing research on stylistic variation and language use.
Since 1983, studies have systematically introduced stylistics and rhetorical characteristics in Vietnamese Thanks to this body of research, Vietnamese learners of English gain fascinating insights into Vietnamese stylistics and receive detailed comparisons with English stylistics To date, a wide range of research on stylistic devices (SDs) has been conducted, expanding our understanding of how Vietnamese and English stylistics relate and differ.
Thái Thị Thu Trang's 2011 thesis, An investigation into stylistic devices commonly used in riddles: English vs Vietnamese, examines three kinds of stylistic devices used in English and Vietnamese riddles to show how riddles are created and how they function in two cultures Of these three kinds, lexical stylistic devices are the most popular in both languages The study compares English and Vietnamese usage and highlights the different choices of stylistic devices that shape the variety of riddles and the imagination of English and Vietnamese speakers The thesis helps readers understand the origins of English and Vietnamese riddles and how they function within each culture, supporting English education by illustrating how riddles can be used for free-practice and other activities However, the researcher analyzes a riddle using only one stylistic device, and the focus on riddles—typically brief and devoid of context—means the meanings of stylistic devices in this context may diverge from their use in other literary works such as short stories and novels.
Phạm Thị Phương Thi (2012) examines stylistic devices—simile, metaphor, hyperbole, repetition, and parallelism—in English and Vietnamese political quotations, grounding the analysis in Galperin's theoretical framework to show how these devices create special effects and facilitate understanding in political discourse The study aims to expand readers' knowledge of stylistic devices, enhance appreciation for the beauty and intrigue of political language, and equip them with strategies and techniques for crafting speeches Through the thesis, readers gain a deeper understanding of both languages' cultures via political quotations However, because the data come from two separate language corpora, the work does not demonstrate a direct transfer of stylistic devices across languages Moreover, political quotations are more formal than literary texts, so the meanings and functions of stylistic devices differ: in political discourse, these devices typically encode political strategies, whereas literary usage centers on aesthetic ideals or themes.
John Steinbeck‘s novel, ―Of Mice And Men‖ itself has also attracted significant interest from many linguistic researchers As in ―Unveiling Multiple
Themes and Concerns: A reading of John Steinbeck‟s Of Mice and Men”, Shakil
A 2018 study on Nobel laureate John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men argues that the novel transcends its Great Depression setting to express timeless human concerns—loneliness and solitude, the longing for companionship, the necessity of friendship, and the persistence of dreams—making it ageless in the human experience Samanik (2020) further investigates gender roles within the story, noting that male characters share traits of strength and aggression with female characters who are portrayed as graceful, attractive, and motherly, and recognizing that civilization imposes and reshapes gender norms through time, need, and culture Taken together, these studies illuminate the novel’s artistic values, yet they overlook the specific tools—such as stylistic devices (SDs)—used to convey those values, and there has been no comparative analysis with another translated version to assess how the work’s themes and messages appear in another language.
As can be seen, various studies have been conducted into the linguistic features of SDs in general and literary language in particular However, exploring SDs used in ―Of Mice and Men‖ by John Steinbeck and its translated version in Vietnamese have not been done yet, which prevents us from having a sound understanding of the beauty of literary language both in English and Vietnamese Thus, it is essential to carry out this research.
Summary
In this chapter, the framework of SDs by Galperin (1977) with detailed descriptions of SDs used in the investigation is introduced Then the author — John Steinbeck, with his novel — ―Of Mice and Men‖ and the Vietnamese translated version by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi have been briefly presented Besides, studies related to SDs on the literary language are reviewed to find out the gap among the studies.
RESEARCH METHODS
Research Design
This thesis analyzes lexical SDs in John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men and its Vietnamese translation by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi, employing a mixed-methods design that integrates qualitative and quantitative approaches By systematically comparing the source and target texts, the study identifies patterns and frequencies of lexical deviations, examines their contextual factors, and assesses their impact on meaning The findings illuminate translation strategies and quality considerations, contributing to translation studies and the understanding of cross-cultural interpretation in literary texts.
Using a qualitative method, the study identifies the main categories and a broad range of subcategories of the lexical SDs used in the data The aim of this approach is to describe, analyze, and synthesize the predominant features of these lexical SDs in order to reveal their purpose within John Steinbeck’s novel.
Furthermore, a quantitative analysis was conducted to quantify the frequency of lexical SDs in both versions This approach allowed for a direct comparison of how often different lexical SDs occurred, highlighting patterns in their usage The resulting data addressed the question of how frequently these resources are utilized across the two versions.
Research Methods
This study mainly uses descriptive, comparative, and contrastive analyses to examine SDs in John Steinbeck’s Of Mice and Men and its Vietnamese translation by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi, and the complementary use of additional methods—integrated together—has proven highly effective in achieving a thorough, well-rounded analysis.
Descriptive method was used through samples in the novels of two languages in order to find out and categorize them into different types of SDs
Using analytic and synthetic methods, the analytic approach isolates specific factors of SDs for in-depth examination while excluding others, and the synthetic perspective reveals how these elements interconnect to form a cohesive whole This combined viewpoint highlights the key drivers of SDs and maps their interrelationships, enabling both detailed analysis and a comprehensive understanding of the system.
Comparative and contrastive methods were applied to discover the remarks of SDs used in the ―Of Mice and Men‖ by John Steinbeck and its Vietnamese translational version
Inductive method was used to synthesize the findings and draw out the generalizations and conclusions.
Data Collection
The researcher conducted a thorough bilingual study of John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men, reading the novel in both English and Vietnamese to collect representative samples These samples are intended to cover the majority of cases involving lexical SDs, providing a comprehensive data set for analyzing how lexical devices are used across languages.
Data Analysis
In the data-analysis phase, markers of lexical SDs were identified, and the frequency of occurrence for each item was quantified and presented in tables and charts that will be illustrated with data examples.
Applying a descriptive approach, this study analyzes the linguistic features of lexical SDs in the English novel and its Vietnamese translation By drawing on representative examples that center on these features, the analysis highlights the similarities and differences between the two versions, illustrating how translation choices shape the handling of lexical SDs in the Vietnamese rendering of the English work.
Research Procedure
This study began with topic selection through a thorough review of prior research, followed by the identification and collection of markers of lexical SDs in both the English novel and its translation The collected instances were analyzed to determine their frequencies, and the findings were presented with examples and explanations Finally, the study established implications for teaching, learning, and translating English texts based on these translation-based insights.
Reliability and Validity
The reliability of the investigation rests on data drawn from John Steinbeck's 1937 novel Of Mice and Men and its Vietnamese edition, Của Chuột và Người, translated by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi and published by the Vietnam Writers' Association in 1967, ensuring both original and translated texts underpin the analysis.
Data analysis validity is strengthened when methods are anchored in established frameworks drawn from recognized researchers, providing a solid theoretical foundation Precise calculation of quantitative data and the careful selection of representative examples further reinforce the rigor and reliability of the investigation Together, these elements enhance the credibility of findings and support robust conclusions.
Summary
Chapter X presents the study’s methodology in detail, showing how the selected methods work together to collect and analyze data and to derive the study’s findings It specifies data sources, data collection procedures, sampling strategies, and analytical techniques used, outlining how each part supports the others in producing robust results The section also discusses the study’s reliability and validity, explaining how rigor, credibility, and methodological soundness were established throughout the research.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Lexical Stylistics Devices in English
Although Of Mice and Men, John Steinbeck’s 101-page novel, contains 118 instances of lexical SDs as shown in Table 4.1, the work employs seven lexical SDs—metaphor, metonymy, irony, simile, euphemism, hyperbole, and allusion—demonstrating Steinbeck’s diverse use of figurative language throughout the text.
Table 4.1 Distribution of Lexical SDs in the novel “Of Mice and Men” by John Steinbeck
Lexical SDs No of Occ %
As indicated in Table 4.1, metaphor ranks first at 23%, followed by simile at 21%, with hyperbole, allusion, and irony at 18%, 17%, and 15% respectively The remaining devices—euphemism at 6% and metonymy at 4%—show that some lexical stylistic devices dominate the overall usage, while others are less frequent; yet each one makes a substantial contribution to the novel's success.
The distribution of metaphors found in the novel ―Of Mice and Men‖ by John Steinbeck is shown in Figure 4.1
Figure 4.1.1 Distribution of Metaphor in the novel “Of Mice and Men” by John Steinbeck
Figure 4.1.1 shows that the three metaphor categories in the English novel are nearly evenly distributed, with genuine metaphors at 37%, trite metaphors at 33%, and sustained metaphors at 30% Writers employ metaphors to compare two different objects, and each type carries implicit or hidden meanings that make the literature more engaging and attractive while helping readers understand the imagery The following examples illustrate how each kind of metaphor is used.
Nearly one-third of the data feature a sustained metaphor, and they play an important role in the novel To define the persistent metaphor, Galperin (1977) uses a variety of terms The principal metaphor—the one that needs to be revigorated—is called the central image.
8 (30%) words that refer to it - contributory images The following are some examples for these cases:
Behind him walked his opposite—a massive man whose face seemed shapeless, with large pale eyes and broad, sloping shoulders He moved with a heavy, dragging gait, his feet barely lifting as if a bear were padding along behind him.
(2) Lennie dabbled his big paw in the water and wiggled his fingers [E-5]
In his MA Thesis about nature symbolism in the novels of John Steinbeck, when investigating the images of animals, Heitkamp (1971) mentions that
Steinbeck emerges as a biologist-like observer who probes the animal motivations underpinning human conduct In his fiction, he frequently equates human and animal behavior, not merely as parallel commentary but as indications of a common nature shared by both people and creatures This approach is especially visible in Of Mice and Men, where the narrator repeatedly relies on animal metaphors to illuminate motive and action Through these parallels, the work suggests that human choices and animal instincts spring from the same primal impulses.
Steinbeck casts the bear as a familiar metaphor for Lennie’s brute strength and great size, a signal he sustains throughout the opening by using verbs such as drag and dabble This first portrait emphasizes Lennie’s bear‑like power alongside his psychological simplicity, described as heavy and dragging, which clarifies how he seems and behaves By depicting Lennie as a bear, the narrative instantly conveys his imposing size and physical presence to readers, anchoring our understanding of his character from the start.
It also demonstrates how, despite his size, he is more like a baby
Heitkamp (1971) argues that Steinbeck’s portrayal of the beast-men is marked by understanding and compassion; although they resemble animals more than humans, they share the basic emotions, desires, and dreams of civilized people Steinbeck may have intended Lennie to symbolize the universal, inarticulate yearning of humanity, affirming the underlying humanity of these marginalized figures The tragedy lies in a society that refuses to accept or understand them, treating Lennie as mad George’s decision to shoot Lennie is partly to spare him the fate of institutionalization, a reminder that social incomprehension condemns Lennies to tragedy.
To put it another way, we can confirm that creating the character
Lennie stands as an authorial achievement in Steinbeck’s craft on several levels Set against the Great Depression, he serves as a symbol of the dispossessed man’s despair and helplessness experienced by ranch hands and other laborers of the era Lennie’s regressed mental state conveys that pain in its most raw form, personalizing the era’s hardship His death marks an inevitable tragic ending for working-class life, a stark reminder of the precarious fate many laborers faced in the novel’s world.
Other sustained metaphors contributing to the success of the novel can be taken as followed:
(3) ―I seen ‗em poison before, but I never seen no piece of jail bait worse than her You leave her be‖ [E-46]
(4) ―She‘s a jailbait all set on the trigger” [E-66]
In Of Mice and Men, the "poison" image recurs as a warning about Curley’s wife, with George labeling her "poison" and "jailbait" and claiming she is "set on the trigger" of trouble He suggests that her presence on the male‑dominated ranch unsettles the order and could provoke men into destructive actions, effectively making her a kind of bait As the only woman on the ranch, she becomes a source of foreboding for the male characters, which reflects the broader pattern in Steinbeck’s novel of portraying women in a way that disrupts or destabilizes men's lives.
Lisa (2021) argues in the analysis of Of Mice and Men that Curley’s wife is not an autonomous individual who drives the plot; instead, she functions as the trigger that leads to Lennie’s banishment and, ultimately, his death She is depicted through objectification, showing how a single action she initiates sets off a chain of reactions, foreshadowed as a living being who is petted and then killed, much like the rabbits and the puppy Yet the novel also shows that, while Curley’s wife acts as the catalyst for Lennie’s demise, she is herself a product of the society that constrains her, and she nonetheless plays a crucial role in the story.
(5) ―Well, you keep away from her, ‗cause she‘s a rattrap if I ever seen one You let Curley take the rap‖ [E-47]
In John Steinbeck's Of Mice and Men, a rattrap is a hopeless situation from which no good can emerge, a metaphor George uses to warn Lennie about Curley’s wife and the danger she represents He cautions that getting entangled with her will only lead to disaster, reinforcing that “take the rap” means to accept blame or the consequences of trouble Curley’s wife is a rat-trap who can ensnare a man, leaving him with no escape except serious injury or death George suggests Lennie stay away and, if trouble arises, to let Curley take the rap rather than risk his own life This dynamic frames Curley’s wife as a dangerous lure in the novel, a source of inevitable conflict and consequence.
From scenes three to five, Curley’s wife stands out as the only female character who plays a significant role in Of Mice and Men, yet Steinbeck never names her and only mentions her in passing Despite individual women's real-world status, the novel excludes them from its imagined heaven George and Lennie picture a future for two men alone, with no wives or women to interfere with their dream of tending the land and raising rabbits In addition, female sexuality is portrayed as a trap designed to ensnare and ruin men.
Trite metaphors, though limited in number, help make a writer’s thoughts, emotions, and imagery more concrete and accessible Because these expressions are fixed units in the language, they reliably evoke familiar images that readers immediately recognize However, their role is not to uncover new aspects of meaning; they function as conventional tools that support comprehension through well-known visuals, rather than as engines of original interpretation.
Based on this view, there are some cases found in the English novel Here are some examples:
(6) A light of understanding broke on Lennie‘s face [E-10]
This metaphorical image has become so widespread that it appears not only in literary works but also in scientific writing For example, a 2012 article in BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine uses this same phrase, underscoring how the metaphor has crossed from the humanities into the sciences.
Similarities and Differences of Lexical SDs in the English and the
Figure 4.2 compares the lexical SDs between the English version and its Vietnamese translation, showing 118 lexical SDs in the English version and 87 in the Vietnamese translation The accompanying graph also highlights variation in the number of lexical SDs across different kinds, indicating an uneven distribution between categories.
Figure 4.2 Distribution of Lexical SDs in the English and the Vietnamese versions
Across the English novel and its Vietnamese translation, lexical stylistic devices (SDs) show distinct patterns In the English version metaphor leads with 27 cases (23%), followed by simile with 25 cases (21%), while in the Vietnamese translation simile dominates with 31 cases (35%) and metaphor drops to 10 cases (13%) Other SDs vary: in English, hyperbole occurs 22 times (18%), allusion 17 times (15%), euphemism 7 times (6%), and irony 15 times (13%); in Vietnamese, hyperbole 16 times (18%), allusion 9 times (10%), euphemism 5 times (6%), and irony 14 times (16%) Metonymy appears 5 times (2.26%) in the English version and only 1 time (1%) in Vietnamese Overall, apart from a 6-case increase in simile, the remaining English lexical SDs show a total drop of 38 cases These decreases don’t mean the Vietnamese version is lost in translation; there are seven gains in translating lexical SDs into Vietnamese, mainly in simile, and three substitutions from one lexical SD type to another when comparing the two versions.
Translating an English novel into Vietnamese involves a dual aim: the translator seeks to render the source text as faithfully as possible in Vietnamese, while also adapting the prose to be more accessible and resonant for Vietnamese readers This balance preserves the original's voice and nuance even as it bridges cultural and linguistic gaps to enhance comprehension The following discussion illustrates these two aspects in greater detail.
4.2.1 Similarities and Differences of Metaphor in the English and the
As indicated in Figure 4.2, metaphor is the lexical SD that notices the most significant difference between the two versions While the author uses
27 metaphors (23%) in the English translation, only 10 metaphors (13%) are found in the Vietnamese version
Between the English novel and the Vietnamese translation, there are few parallels Only a few metaphors used in the English version are translated exactly into Vietnamese Here‘s an illustration:
(81) George looked over at Slim and saw the calm, Godlike eyes fastened on him [E-54]
(82) George nhìn Slim và bắt gặp luồng nhỡn thần đang chiếu vào nó [V-41]
In the examples above, ―nhỡn thần‖ is an exact translation of the phrase
―Godlike eyes‖, which is a metaphor to describe Slim
Across English-Vietnamese translations, numerous metaphorical distinctions have emerged, revealing how each language frames imagery differently To address this, the author employs a range of Vietnamese metaphorical images to render the metaphors found in the English text, with many instances reinterpreting or preserving connections to the original images This scenario illustrates the nuanced dynamics of cross-language metaphor translation, where translators choose Vietnamese images that parallel or echo the source imagery, sometimes aligning closely with the original figurative scene and other times diverging to fit cultural or linguistic conventions.
(83) Thứ rắn độc này, tao thấy đã nhiều [V-35]
In example (83), the writer uses the Vietnamese phrase 'rắn độc' (poisonous snake) to translate 'poison' in example (3); both terms are deployed to describe women as dangerous and to warn other men against them This choice of wording shows how metaphorical language positions women as threats, and it highlights how translation and cultural context can reinforce gendered stereotypes within the text.
The writer sometimes utilizes completely different images in the Vietnamese version, which have no relation to the original visuals but express the same metaphorical meanings:
(84) ―Curley‘s got yella-jackets in his drawers, but that‘s all so far‖ [E-65]
(85) Y như là thằng Curley nó chứa bom trong nhà nhƣng cho đến bây giờ chƣa nổ [V-48]
In comparison between examples (84) and (85), ―bom trong nhà‖ or
―bomb in the house‖ has no connection to ―yella-jackets in his drawers‖ However, these two images both express the trouble of Curley, which his wife would cause
In many cases, some instances of metaphor are translated without using any metaphorical images, which makes metaphor disappear in some cases in Vietnamese Here is one example:
(86) ―Yeah? Married two weeks and got the eye? Maybe that‘s why Curley‘s pants is full of ants‖ [E-40]
(87) Thế hả Vừa mới lấy chồng hai tuần mà đã bốc à? Có phải vì thế mà thằng Curley hay nổi khùng chứ gì? [L-11]
In examples (87), ―hay nổi khùng‖ (gets angry) is the translation of the metaphorical meaning of ―pants is full of ants‖, in example (86)
Even still, some metaphors in English are no longer present in the Vietnamese language, as evidenced by the following example:
(88) Lennie nhúng hẳn tay xuống và khuấy nước làm bắn bọt lên [L-2]
(Lennie dabbled his hands in the water and wiggled his fingers, so the water arose in little splashes)
The phrase 'his big paw' in example (2) carries significant meaning in the original work, yet there is no direct translated equivalent in the Vietnamese version as shown in example (88) This mismatch illustrates how certain symbolic or stylistic elements can be lost in translation when rendered into Vietnamese The comparison between these two examples indicates that the Vietnamese translation fails to preserve a crucial nuance of the source text, underscoring translation challenges and the need for careful adaptation to maintain meaning across languages.
After all, some sentences of metaphor in English are translated into Vietnamese with the use of simile Here are some cases:
Người đi sau ngược lại, cao lớn và có vẻ mặt kỳ dị, đôi mắt to nhợt nhạt và khuôn mặt căng thẳng Vai u thịt bắp, hắn bước nặng nề, lê chân như con gấu Hai tay cứng đờ buông thõng xuống thân mình, toát lên vẻ lạnh lùng và uy hiếp.
Example (89) uses the Vietnamese expression lê chân như con gấu, which translates to "drag his legs like a bear." This construction employs a simile introduced by như (like) to convey the image described in example (1): the way a bear drags his paws By pairing the literal action with the bear’s dragging motion, the sentence demonstrates how Vietnamese similes map to English equivalents using "like" or "as," preserving both meaning and vivid imagery for readers and search engines alike.
(90) Một con rắn nước trườn ngược dòng sông một cách mềm mại Đầu nó, nhƣ một kính viễn vọng nhỏ, quay sang phải rồi sang trái [V-83]
In example (90), the English phrase “its periscope head” is translated as “đầu nó, như một kính viễn vọng nhỏ”—literally “its head, like a small periscope”—a construction that forms a simile using the Vietnamese word “như” to mean “like.” This rendering aligns with example (10), preserving the figurative sense while adapting the image into a natural Vietnamese simile.
4.2.2 Similarities and Differences of Metonymy in the English and the Vietnamese versions
Figure 4.2 shows a clear difference in the use of metonymy between the English and Vietnamese versions, reflecting variations in the deployment of lexical semantic devices (SDs) across languages The English novel contains five metonymy instances (2.26%), whereas the Vietnamese translation has only one instance (1%) This divergence illustrates how translation choices affect the prevalence of metonymy and lexical SDs in bilingual texts.
An examination reveals that the Vietnamese translator did not render any aspect of the whole metonymy in his translation; instead, he preserves only the producer-type reference for product metonymy, as shown below This results in a limited rendering that foregrounds the producer label while neglecting other facets of the metonymic relationship.
(91) Nó giận dữ, chạy ra khỏi trại Carlson nói:
- Tôi đi lấy khẩu Luger [V-81]
We can see, in Vietnamese, the translator still keep the word Luger to refer for producer for product type of metonomy, as in example (15)
In the Vietnamese translation, all instances of part for the whole metonymy in English are absent:
Ồ! Làm sao lại như thế này, tôi hiếm khi thấy người đi làm thuê đồng hành với nhau như vậy Anh thì còn lạ gì với dân đi làm thuê: họ được người ta dẫn đến một chỗ ở, làm việc một tháng, kiếm được kha khá một chút rồi lại xéo đi chỗ khác, vậy thôi.
Họ chả bao giờ thèm chú ý tới ai cả [L-16]
In translation studies, "hands" can function as a metonymy and be rendered as "mấy tay" (example 92) However, the Vietnamese writer's choice of "dân" (people) in this sentence eliminates the metonymic device, resulting in a direct reference to the people rather than a body-part metaphor and altering the rhetorical texture of the line in both Vietnamese and English.
The rest of this metonymy type in English follow the same pattern:
(93) Tôi chẳng có gia đình thân thích Tôi thấy dân làm mướn trong trại cũng một thân một mình vậy Chả ra làm sao cả [L-17]
(94) Có người còn tính cho tôi đóng xi nê nữa đó [L-31]
In examples 93 and 94, the Vietnamese writer uses gia đình (family) and xi nê (cinema) in a non-metonymic sense, unlike the English version which employs metonymy with terms like “people” and “pitchers”; this distinction is also explained in examples 13 and 14.
4.2.3 Similarities and Differences of Irony in the English and the
Figure 4.2 demonstrates that the English novel and Vietnamese translation contain 15 (13%) and 14 (16%) instances of irony, respectively
As can be observed from the data provided above, the numbers of irony in both versions are practically identical Following are some examples of proof:
(95) Mà chú là máy chứ gì? Được rồi tôi sẽ nói chuyện với chú sau Tôi thích máy lắm kia [V-67]
In example (95), ―máy‖ or ―machine‖ in example (19) is an ironic way that Curley‘s wife calls Lennie when she realizes Lennie has broken Curley‘s hand
(96) ―Sure we will,‖ George said sleepily ―Red and blue and green rabbits‖ [E-27]
Yes, I’ll buy all the colors—the red, green, and blue—so we can picture our future in a full spectrum In the scene about tending rabbits, the line “Red and blue and green” is used as George’s sarcasm toward Lennie, turning their hopeful plan into a teasing remark about reality The colors reflect mood shifts and the tension between dream and hardship on the ranch, with George using humor to manage Lennie’s expectations while clinging to the rabbits as a symbol of simple happiness This moment encapsulates the story’s themes of friendship, aspiration, and survival and shows how dialogue can convey warmth and unease at the same time.
Nonetheless, some words are translated without irony, as they are in the English version:
(98) Đẹp, đẹp lắm Có gì phơi ra hết rồi Thằng kia cũng chẳng lạ gì nữa [L-14]
While in example (18), George says ironically, ―Yeah, and she‘s sure hidin‘ it‖, in example (98), the Vietnamese translator uses the word ―phơi ra‖
(showing), which is opposite to the word ―hidin‘‖ (hiding), and hence, there is no more irony in the Vietnamese sentence
4.2.4 Similarities and Differences of Simile in the English and the
According to Figure 4.2, in the Vietnamese translation, the number of instances of simile has increased from 25 (21%) in the English version to 31 (35%) in the Vietnamese version
As regards similarities, it can be seen that there are some noticeable similarities between the English novel and the Vietnamese translation Only
Summary
In this chapter, the investigation results into lexical SDs used in the novel ―Of Mice and Men‖ by John Steinbeck and its Vietnamese translated version by Hoàng Ngọc Khôi have been presented Data analysis reveals some noticeable findings in the way lexical SDs used in the English work and similarities and differences between the English novel and its translation First, seven lexical SDs are found in the original novel: metaphor, metonymy, irony, simile, hyperbole, euphemism, and allusion Second, the distribution of types of lexical SDs varies in English, with the highest percentage belonging to metaphor, and the next ones are simile, hyperbole, allusion, irony, euphemism, and metonymy Third, there are notable similarities and differences in the lexical SDs used in English and Vietnamese Simile ranks first in Vietnamese, the second one is hyperbole, and the rest are irony, metaphor, allusion, euphemism, and metonymy Each type of lexical SDs has its own alike and unlike points in comparison between the English and Vietnamese versions, making the Vietnamese translation style sound natural and understandable to Vietnamese readers.