ABSTRACT The thesis is a study of identifying the types and functions of figures of speech in English contemporary short stories.This study is aimed to examine types of figures of speech
INTRODUCTION
Rationale
Language can denote the human capacity to acquire and use complex systems of communication, or a particular instance of such a system Linguistics is the scientific study of language in any of its senses, and it has infused semantics with rigorous analysis, framing meaning as an integral part of the overall theory of how language works.
Semantics is a core field of linguistics that investigates how meaning is constructed and interpreted in language It examines how words, phrases, and sentences convey intentions and how listeners or readers infer what speakers or writers mean Understanding meaning is essential because it determines how effectively we comprehend messages, influences interpretation, and shapes communication across different contexts and cultures By studying semantics, researchers reveal how context, syntax, and cultural factors interact to affect understanding and meaning in everyday speech and writing.
In literary writing, a writer conveys denotative and connotative meanings through carefully chosen words Achieving high artistic quality means not only using language colorfully and precisely but also applying stylistic devices to make the text more interesting and persuasive Stylistic devices provide auxiliary meanings, ideas, or feelings that enrich interpretation and engagement Frequent use of these devices helps make literature more attractive, lively, and memorable In written papers, the impact of stylistic devices on readers is considerable, shaping perception and emotional response.
Within stylistics, figures of speech are a core aspect of language style, illustrating figurative language through intentional departures from ordinary norms of communication Leech and Short (2007) note that figures of speech emerge when language deviates from the general rules encoded in the language code A rich body of research has investigated figures of speech across literary texts—poetry (Perrine, 1987), prose (Leech & Short, 2007), and short stories (Abet, 2019)—and this inquiry often informs education, guiding student researchers in stylistic analysis (Simpson, 2004) Consequently, many studies focus on understanding prominent writers and their signature works, such as Hemingway’s novels, O Henry’s short stories, and Emily Dickinson’s poetry.
Short stories communicate on two levels: denotative meaning, which conveys the author’s explicit message, and connotative meaning, which subtly expresses attitudes and emotions such as agreement, happiness, or dissatisfaction to readers Through figures of speech, writers pack non-literal meaning into sentences, enriching the narrative with beauty, imagination, and intrigue Figurative language—comprising devices like metaphor, simile, symbols, hyperbole, and irony—serves as a powerful toolkit for expression Broadly, these figurative devices are categorized by meaning into three groups: those based on comparison, those based on association, and those based on contrast This repertoire of figurative language is widely recognized in society and remains central in education from elementary school through university (Simpson, 2004).
Recognizing the significance of stylistic devices and figures of speech in literary texts, and noting the limited analysis of contemporary short stories, this study investigates the stylistic devices used in English-language contemporary short stories published between 2000 and 2019 to identify the distinctive styles of modern short-story writers.
Aims and objectives of the study
This study identifies the typical figures of speech used in English contemporary short stories to help learners of English understand modern short fiction more thoroughly It also analyzes the functions of these stylistic devices in terms of aesthetics, showing how metaphor, simile, personification, and other devices shape meaning, tone, imagery, and reader engagement within contemporary narratives.
In order to achieve these aims, I try to fulfill the following objectives:
- To investigate stylistic devices in English contemporary short stories
- To interpret the functions of these figures of speech in English contemporary short stories.
Research questions
In order to achieve the above aim and objectives, the research collect and analyze the data in order to answer the following questions:
1 What are common stylistic devices used in English contemporary short stories?
2 What are the functions of these stylistic devices?
Scope of the study
Within the scope of this minor thesis, this study examines contemporary English short stories from the United States and the United Kingdom published between 2000 and 2019, analyzing 20 stories by different authors to capture varied voices and narrative styles while aiming to investigate multiple topics rather than a single theme The stories were collected mainly from online sources, and the analysis centers on 12 figures of speech treated as stylistic devices, categorized according to Perrine (1987) This approach provides a precise, SEO-friendly overview of how contemporary English short fiction uses stylistic devices to convey meaning across diverse topics and authorial voices.
Across the globe, English exists in many varieties—British English, Indian English, American English, and more This thesis, however, concentrates on contemporary short stories from the United States and the United Kingdom, as these are the primary sources of English and illuminate the beauty of the language as a native tongue.
Significance of the Study
This study provides a systematic insight into lexical stylistic devices in English contemporary short stories and offers practical value for teaching and learning English stylistics, especially the use of stylistic devices in contemporary short stories By analyzing how these devices are deployed, learners recognize the beauty of language in storytelling and acquire techniques in the use of words for writing papers, enabling more accurate and effective English language learning Stylistic devices are not only used in English contemporary short stories but also in everyday life, helping writers craft compelling narratives and readers uncover hidden meanings for faster, clearer reading.
Design of the study
The study is organized into five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 presents the rationale, aims and objectives, research questions, scope of the study, significance of the study, and design of the study
Chapter 2 is a summary of the theory, including not only definitions of stylistic devices, figures of speeches and contemporary short stories but also mainly focusing on the types and the functions of figures of speech Then, a concise review of the previous studies related to the issues under investigation is also indicated
Chapter 3 is a description of research method and procedure, data collection, data analysis and reliability ad validity will be fully described
Chapter 4 deals with finding and analyzing the types of figures of speech used in 10 English contemporary short stories Besides, four functions of figures of speech are clearly discussed
Chapter 5, Conclusion and Implications, provides a concise synthesis of the study’s key findings and clearly outlines the limitations of the research It explains the practical, theoretical, and policy implications of the results and how they advance understanding in the field The chapter also offers concrete recommendations for future research, detailing avenues to address remaining questions, test the robustness of the findings, and build on the current evidence base.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Stylistic devices
Scholars offer diverse definitions of stylistic devices, reflecting different theoretical viewpoints In Galperin's framework (1977), a stylistic device is the deliberate intensification of a language unit’s typical structural and/or semantic property—whether neutral or marked—elevated to a generalized status and thereby becoming a generative model that guides language use.
Widdowson (1975) defines stylistics as the study of literary discourse within a linguistic context, distinct from both literary criticism and linguistics and occupying a middle ground that mediates between the two disciplines In essence, stylistics synthesizes two traditions of literary criticism by merging the reader’s subjective, intuitive judgment with linguistic analysis that describes how readers respond to a text.
According to Short (1996), styles interpret the connection between language and aesthetic function, framing style as a key to understanding how form and meaning interact in literature Stylistic analysis seeks to identify the artistic components shaped by the writer's language choices, making it essential to evaluate a text’s stance on its overall artistic impact and to examine how its parts are integrated to create the whole.
Stylistic devices, also known as figures of speech or rhetorical devices, are techniques used to add additional meaning, ideas, or sensations to a text By creating vivid imagery, adding emphasis, and clarifying concepts, these tools help engage readers and convey messages more effectively.
Most stylistic devices operate on two levels of meaning: the ordinary, established sense—the lexical or structural meaning that is part of the language system—and a special, contextual meaning that emerges from a particular situation.
Leech and Short (2007) describe stylistics as the discipline that explains language use and its aesthetic function, arguing that every analysis of style is an attempt to uncover the artistic principles behind a writer’s choices Building on this, Simpson (2004: 3) notes that the essential aim of stylistics is to explore language and creativity in how language is used.
Leech and Short (2007) identify four key fields of study in stylistics: lexical categories, grammatical categories, cohesion and context, and figures of speech Lexical categories focus on the words themselves—verbs, adjectives, nouns, and adverbs—and how their choices shape meaning and style Grammatical categories examine sentence structure, including tense, voice, and aspect, and how these elements convey perspective and temporality Cohesion and context address how sentences and phrases relate to one another within a text and how the surrounding context influences interpretation Figures of speech cover the devices that depart from ordinary speech, making language more figurative through metaphor, simile, irony, and other rhetorical forms.
Stylistic devices are an essential component of linguistics, governed by rules that cover lexical choice, grammar, context, cohesion, and figures of speech They convey thoughts and emotions, shaping both the input and output of the communication process In this discussion, stylistic devices are examined within the framework of figures of speech, with a detailed account to follow.
2.1.1 The Definition of Figure of Speech
Figurative language is pervasive in many forms of discourse Some linguists have different perceptions to define figurative language Dancygier,
Figurative language is the language of creative work, widely used in verbal communication to shape ideas and illuminate the audience’s feelings (Sweeter, 2014) Eubanks (2011) notes that figurative structures are not merely decorative; they are essential and persuasive elements of language, rooted in cognitive structures that guide thought, generate creative meaning for the audience, and spark imagination through implied words Perrine (1987) adds that figures of speech should not be interpreted literally, because they convey messages in an unusual way and offer fresh meaning to what has already been said.
Figurative language, according to Perrine (1987), is a way of saying one thing in order to mean another, enriching words, phrases, or sentences beyond their literal expressions and often providing more extended meaning than direct statements She argues that these devices can convey meaning more effectively and outlines a range of figurative forms—metaphor, simile, personification, metonymy, paradox, overstatement, understatement, irony, and allusion—that contribute to richer interpretation Supporting Perrine’s view, Rozakis (1995) adds that figurative language uses non-literal comparison to refer to another meaning, so the expression cannot be interpreted literally because of its intended, figurative meaning.
Ogunsiji (2000) argues that figurative language carries extended or associative meanings that engage readers’ imaginative understanding and evoke their emotions It is a central device in poetry and creative writing, used to broaden the meaning of phenomena and elicit deep emotional perception from readers.
Definitions of figurative language vary, but its core concept and function remain consistent: figurative language describes stories through non-literal expressions It is often viewed as a stylistic device that dresses up language to transcend literal meaning, making writing more engaging, clarifying the intended message, and shaping how audiences perceive the text through its aesthetic use of imagery and metaphor.
Meanwhile, scholars of classical western rhetoric have classified figurative language into two main categories of tropes and schemes Some experts like Abrams and Harpham (2012), Perrine (1987) and Znamenskaya
(2004) have employed the term „figurative language‟ to refer to both tropes and schemes
According to Znamenskaya (2004, p 193), figures of speech are stylistic devices that encompass schemes, tropes, and other syntactical expressive means, making them essential concepts in linguistic analysis; when identifying the features of these figures of speech, tropes and schemes stand out as practical categories for capturing their core expressive mechanisms.
Leech and Short (2007: 66) state that schemes are defined as
Foregrounded repetition of expressions and deliberate irregularities of content are central to schemes in stylistics Leech and Short (2007:63) classify schemes into phonological, grammatical, and lexical types, with phonological schemes encompassing rhyme, alliteration, and assonance; grammatical and lexical schemes involve formal and structural repetition such as anaphora and parallelism, as well as mirror-image patterns like chiasmus In addition, tropes include traditional poetic figures of speech and their specialized interpretation.
The classification of figures of speech is based on Perrine‟s theory
In 1987, figures of speech were grouped into three categories: figures of speech by comparison, which include metaphor, simile, personification, and apostrophe; figures of speech by association, consisting of metonymy, symbol, synecdoche, and allegory; and figures of speech by contrast, which comprise paradox, overstatement, understatement, and irony.
2.1.2.1 Figures of speech by comparison
Based on Perrine (1987), both metaphor and simile are used to compare things that are fundamentally unlike The similarity is stated directly in simile by the use of a connector word
Furthermore, Kennedy & Gioia (2007) say that “Simile is indicated by some connective words such as like, as, than, or a verb such as resembles.”
Contemporary short stories
A short story is a brief work of fiction written in prose, shorter than a novel and distilled into a focused sequence of pivotal moments It shows how people react to life through a tight constellation of scenes rather than an expansive arc Because the form is more constrained than a novel, the author cannot detail every development of a character; instead, the whole life is revealed through carefully chosen moments and key events that illuminate personality and theme.
A short story typically aims for a single effect, unfolding through one or a few key scenes The form prizes economy of setting, a concise narrative, and the deliberate omission of a complex plot, with character revealed through action and dramatic encounter rather than extended development Despite its modest scope, it is often judged by its ability to deliver a complete or satisfying treatment of its characters and subject.
According to Klarer (1988), the short story is part of the literary genre of fiction It can be categorized as fiction because many short stories rely on fantasy elements, such as fairy tales The short story emerges as a largely independent text type toward the end of the eighteenth century, evolving in parallel with the development of the novel While the novel has long attracted the attention of literary theorists, the short story has never achieved the same status as longer fiction.
According to Klarer (1998:14), a defining feature of the short story is its sense of unity, achievable when it is read in one sitting without interruption, unlike a novel Because of its brevity, the short story's plot must be highly selective, adopting an idiosyncratic temporal dimension that typically centers on one central moment of action.
A short story relies on essential elements that build the narrative and give it meaning Each element—theme, plot, setting, character, and point of view—has a distinct role that helps the story feel coherent and engaging Together, these short story elements shape the reader's experience by guiding the plot, establishing the world, defining the characters, and presenting the perspective through which events unfold.
Klarer (1998:13) explains that the roots of the short story lie in antiquity and the Middle Ages, with myth and fairy tale among the oldest textual forms that were primarily transmitted orally As a literary form, the short story is ripe for analysis: despite its concise plot, small cast, and limited settings in time and place, it can develop fully Much of the research on short stories concentrates on intrinsic elements, since these features are a key part of the form and help draw the reader into the narrative.
Klarer (1998:15) identifies the essential elements of a short story as plot, character, narrative perspective, and setting, noting that plot explains what happens, character denotes who acts, narrative perspective reveals who sees the action, and setting specifies where and when the events occur.
Klarer (1998:15) defines plot as the logical interaction of a text’s thematic elements that changes the initial situation presented at the story’s outset A plot is a sequence of events designed to convey the narrative, and a traditional plot line typically advances through four consecutive stages: exposition, complication (development), climax or turning point, and resolution.
Thus, plot in a short story is indispensable since it will determine whether the story is interesting or not though it‟s sequential level, conflict, and narrative style
Klarer (1998:17) argues that character plays a crucial role in a short story because the small cast concentrates attention on the central figure The chief character typically becomes the center of interest, while other characters exist mainly to support and illuminate the main character’s traits and development.
In a story, the main character, often called the protagonist, holds the most significant role and anchors the narrative This character drives the majority of the plot and experiences the key events that occur Supporting characters, by contrast, do not have dominating roles; their presence is to complete and support the main character, enriching the story and helping to reveal the main character’s traits and growth.
Characterization is the process of presenting a character’s nature and crafting a vivid image of the person who inhabits the story Put simply, characterization is the creation of imaginary figures so they feel lifelike, revealed through actions, dialogue, thoughts, and description that show their personality, motivations, and relationships.
An effective approach to reader comprehension is through character identification When readers identify the main character early in the story, they can more accurately understand the intricate relationships among the characters and gain a deeper appreciation for what they say and do This early recognition clarifies motivations, dynamics, and consequences across scenes, helping readers follow the narrative and enjoy a fuller understanding of the plot.
Klarer (1998) defines narrative perspective, or point of view, as the way a text presents its characters, events, and settings The subtleties of narrative perspective developed in tandem with the rise of the novel and can be reduced to three basic positions: the action of a text may be mediated through an exterior, unspecified narrator (omniscient point of view); through a person involved in the action (first-person narration); or presented without additional commentary (figural narrative situation).
In short story, setting always appears as place, time, and circumstance that will be the scene where the story takes place Setting becomes one of the important elements of short story since it can create the atmosphere of the story and bring readers to the situation that the authors want to create The setting of place physically is a place where events in a story occurred Presentation of this setting of place supported also by describing of things located in narration because it is a unity of the narration of place The setting of time describes about time of every event that occurred in the story including present, past or even uncertain times Whereas the setting of culture describes of society conditions, social group and their attitude, custom, life style and language used in events of the story
From the explanation above, it may be concluded that setting involves time, place, condition, and atmosphere that are created as the background of the story Moreover, setting is important since it can shape the main character, build mood and in the whole, help outlined the general theme so reader will feel the scene of the short story
Previous studies
Numerous studies examine figurative language across genres, from short poems to lengthy novels Most of these investigations seek to identify the features of figurative devices used in these genres and the effects they produce in writing The following section reviews some of these studies.
Elfrida's 2018 study on figure of speech in the book Angka Ende uses a descriptive-qualitative analysis to identify major figurative language types The findings reveal ten categories—simile, metaphor, personification, hyperbole, oxymoron, understatement, pun, symbol, metonymy, and synecdoche Simile emerges as the most prevalent form, accounting for 51.51% of instances, followed by metaphor at 24.24%, hyperbole at 10.61%, oxymoron at 6.06%, and personification at 4.55%, with symbol at 3.03% Overall, simile is the dominant figurative language type used in Angka Ende.
Amare (2002) undertakes a stylistic analysis of selected English poems by Tsegaye G / Meehan, Solomon Deressa, and Eyasu Gorfu to interpret how language communicates meaning in each poem and to reveal the recurring themes across the poets’ performances The core objective is to explore language use and understand how stylistic choices convey meaning, while also identifying patterns that recur in their work The study further aims to demonstrate the effectiveness of stylistic analysis in exposing the meaning of literary texts and arriving at reliable interpretations To accomplish this, Amare adopts Geoffrey Leech’s revised methodological framework.
(1969) in his book, A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry; however, she makes use of other references
Adane (2012) conducts a stylistic analysis of a novel by focusing on three selected chapters—1, 7, and 16—considered stylistically pivotal despite the work having 16 chapters overall The study adopts lexical categories and figures of speech as its theoretical framework to explore how language shapes meaning within these anchor chapters The current study mirrors Adane's approach, employing the same stylistic lens and analysis of figures of speech to illuminate the text's stylistic features.
Diribu (2012) in his thesis, aims to stylistically analyze four of Edgar Allen Poe's short stories: The Shadow, The Black cat, ATale of Jerusalem and
Three Sundays in a Week uses foregrounding as the sole theoretical framework for its analysis Both this study and the related work consider foregrounding in their analyses, but they differ in scope: this study applies foregrounding across a broader textual space, whereas the current analysis also engages additional stylistic devices beyond foregrounding.
Li and Shi (2015) provide a rigorous stylistic analysis of E E Cummings' poetry, highlighting his status as a pioneer of experimental poetry The study shows that his work has drawn prominent linguists who examine the stylistic features and creativity present in his poems It analyzes foregrounding patterns and varieties of deviation in selected poems, all centered on major themes such as death, life, nature, and love The findings shed light on how Cummings’ innovative techniques reshape meaning and affect, offering valuable insights into his poetic artistry.
This chapter offers a concise overview of stylistic device theory, defining figures of speech as stylistic devices, presenting their four-category typology per Perrine (1987), and detailing their functions in literary texts It also covers short stories and relevant studies, providing a knowledge base that guides the current study on English contemporary short stories.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methods
This study employs descriptive, quantitative, and qualitative methods to explore figures of speech as stylistic devices in contemporary English short stories The descriptive phase interprets the meanings and functions of figures of speech within the texts, while the quantitative phase surveys their occurrence, with each instance identified and tallied in Excel to determine the frequency of different figurative types The qualitative phase, drawing on Marshall and Rossman (1995), argues that qualitative inquiry is particularly effective for uncovering unexpected insights and exploring new avenues, making it well suited for investigating the major categories of figurative language Together, these methods provide a comprehensive analysis and a descriptive synthesis of the results.
Research procedure
To achieve success in our research, we followed four steps: first, twenty contemporary U.S and U.K short stories, averaging 800 to 1200 words, were downloaded and coded as S1–S20 (S1 denotes Story 1); second, all categories of figures of speech were identified according to the traits of each type, whether grouped by comparison, association, or contrast; third, these stylistic devices were analyzed in terms of their effects and functions within the texts; and finally, the study presents implications and proposes directions for future research based on the findings.
Data collection
The data were collected and downloaded from the Internet with 20 English contemporary short stories of the U.S and England from 2000 to
2019 Each of them typically was from 800 words to 1200 words long
These stories span the varied steps of everyday life, from romantic love between people (S2) and between animals (S3) to the desperate struggles of a debt‑ridden writer (S1), a strange journey aboard a ferry (S4), a contemplative trip to a graveyard (S5), and a tense assassination (S6) Together they form a diverse collection that captures emotion, conflict, and moments of wonder, with all data links shown below for easy access.
S1: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2019/11/11/neck-snapping-time/ S2: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2019/09/09/electricidad/
S3: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2019/05/13/my-name-is-ian-z- mcphee-3/
S4: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2018/04/19/the-final-crossing/ S5: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2018/07/25/the-tale-of-tobias- squire/
S6: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2016/09/18/little-pricks-in-the- night/
S7: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2019/12/30/daydream-believer/ S8: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2019/08/26/the-strangest- cross/?amp=1
S9: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2018/01/24/oh-moo-ah-moo-ah/ S10: https://tocutashortstoryshort.com/2019/12/02/letters-from-reuben/
S11: https://morgenbailey.wordpress.com/2011/10/28/flash-fiction- friday-006-%E2%80%98lorna-doomed%E2%80%99-by-phoebe-matthews/
S12: https://morgenbailey.wordpress.com/2013/02/15/flash-fiction- friday-074-i-am-by-neal-james/
S13: https://morgenbailey.wordpress.com/2012/04/27/flash-fiction- friday-032-bowing-out-by-marc-nash/
S14: https://authormgw.blogspot.com/p/hush-hush.html
S15: https://morgenbailey.wordpress.com/2012/11/16/flash-fiction- friday-061-carte-blanche-by-marion-grace-woolley/
S16: https://morgenbailey.wordpress.com/2012/11/02/flash-fiction- friday-059-faulkners-ghost-by-donald-schwarz/
S17: https://morgenbailey.wordpress.com/2012/10/19/flash-fiction- friday-057-know-that-you-are-loved-by-dr-margaret-aranda/
S18: https://morgenbailey.wordpress.com/2013/03/29/flash-fiction- friday-080-the-little-black-dress-by-della-galton/
S19: https://morgenbailey.wordpress.com/2013/05/17/flash-fiction- friday-087-twisted-pearls-by-phyllis-burton/
S20: https://sites.google.com/site/swanezine/short-story-competition- results-2011#TOC-Short-Listed:-THE-MAN-by-Katie-Rose
Data analysis
In this research, the framework of figurative language from Perrine
(1987) and Leech and Short (2007) were used to find out major types of figurative language embedded in the text
Twenty contemporary English short stories from different sources were downloaded, coded, and analyzed to identify twelve figures of speech The analysis categorized these devices in three dimensions: by comparison (metaphor, simile, personification, apostrophe, metonymy); by association (symbol, synecdoche, allegory); and by contrast (paradox, hyperbole, litotes, and irony).
After identifying various figures of speech, researchers organized them into separate columns in an Excel table to measure their frequency of occurrence They then present typical examples of each figure to illustrate how these devices function in context and to demonstrate their significance for short stories.
Reliability and validity
The validity and reliability of this research have been established from the early stages of data collection and data analysis
The study’s data source was downloaded from an online link selected based on the names of authors of English short stories This approach ensured that the source was highly reliable for the investigation.
To address the two research questions, this thesis adopts the theoretical framework of stylistic devices established by Perrine (1987) and Leech and Short (2007), a combination widely validated by numerous studies on figures of speech The study adheres to a rigorous scientific procedure, encompassing data collection, systematic analysis of the short stories, and the drawing of conclusions, thereby ensuring the validity and reliability of the findings.
Summary
This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the research methods framework, detailing descriptive, quantitative, and qualitative approaches, as well as the procedures for data collection and data analysis It explains how each method supports the investigation and prepares the study for reliable data handling, interpretation, and integration The next chapter will present the results and discuss their implications, offering insights into the findings and their relevance to the research questions.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Findings
The following table gives the general findings of types and functions of stylistic devices
Table 4.1 General view of types and functions of figures of speech
Categories Types Functions Number of Data
- Saying much in a brief compass
Metonymy - Saying much in a brief compass
6 Symbol - Bringing an additional imagery
Categories Types Functions Number of Data
3 Synecdoche - Saying much in a brief compass
6 By Contrast Paradox - Adding emotional intensity
- Saying much in a brief compass
Table 4.1 reveals that of twelve stylistic devices, ten appear in the data: metaphor, simile, personification, metonymy, symbol, synecdoche, paradox, hyperbole (overstatement), understatement, and irony These are organized into three categories—figures of speech by comparison, figures of speech by association, and figures of speech by contrast—while apostrophe and allegory are not present in the short stories analyzed.
Each type of stylistic device serves a distinct function, with figures of speech classified into four roles: providing imaginative pleasure, enriching imagery, intensifying emotional impact, and conveying much with concise expression Based on the table above, all four functions of figures of speech appear in the English contemporary short stories under consideration.
Rhetorical devices include simile and understatement, which both increase emotional intensity and convey a great deal in a compact form; metaphor, which adds vivid imagery and elevates emotional resonance in the narrative; and personification, which provides imaginative pleasure and further emotional impact Overstatement/hyperbole, paradox, and irony have only one function: to heighten the reader's emotional intensity Metonymy and synecdoche have only one function: to say much in a brief compass Symbol, too, has only one function—bringing additional imagery.
The more detailed frequency of these figures of speech can be seen in table 4.2 following
Table 4.2 The frequency of figures of speech in 20 short stories
Type of figure Number Percentage
It is noticeable from table 4.2 that the number of simile is highest, accounting for 41.7 % Ranking the second position is personification, making up 15.7% The third rank belonged to overstatement (10.4%)
In the analysis, metaphor accounts for 8.7% of occurrences, while symbol and paradox each account for 5.2% Understatement, irony, and synecdoche appear at 6.1%, 3.5%, and 2.6% respectively, with metonymy having the lowest incidence at about 0.9% Allegory and apostrophe are not employed in the stories under consideration.
The types of stylistic devices in 20 English contemporary short stories
This section gives an interpretation and explanation for some typical examples taken from the data to reveal their effects on the story
Metaphor is a figure of speech that compares the things essentially unlike There is one metaphor in story 2 of the data The example of metaphor is presented in the following:
“What‟s the Spanish for electricity?” he‟d asked, standing shoulder to shoulder with her, gazing down at a waterfall
“It‟s what I feel when I‟m with you.” (S2)
This is the conversation of the two main characters of the story titled
Electricidad, the Spanish word for electricity, appears in a short dialogue where a man attempts to articulate the irresistible attraction—perhaps lust—that the girl feels toward him The scene relies on a metaphor, as the man uses electric imagery to describe the spark, current, and charge between them, turning a personal feeling into a vivid linguistic device that communicates intensity through energy-related terminology In this way, the term electricidad links language, emotion, and metaphor, offering a concise, SEO-friendly capsule about how a Spanish word for electricity can symbolize magnetic attraction in conversation.
The male character uses “electricity” as a metaphor to signal a current of excitement that runs through his body when he is with his partner, transforming his feeling into a vivid sensing of arousal This metaphor brings heightened imagery to the scene, intensifying the emotional tone and giving readers a sharper sense of the romance By equating his strong sensations with electricity, the writer invites readers to picture the moment vividly and to feel the powerful attraction he feels toward his girl, boosting engagement with the romantic plot and the story’s emotional arc.
Another example of metaphor is presented in story 6 of the data The example of metaphor is presented in the following:
Digby gone, Steven had a sudden thought, „Marehamby, Marehamby!‟
He recalled the picturesque little town Hmm the „drop drone‟ could carry several „killer drones‟…(S6)
The story “Little Pricks In The Night” centers on an assassination plot in which Ronald Digby hires Steven to murder his wife, Sandra Steven deploys tiny, insect-like drones equipped with facial-recognition technology and poisons, and the phrase “killer drones” is used as a dual metaphor for both the small, deadly machines and the clandestine method of murder This metaphor adds vivid imagery and emotional depth to the tale, inviting readers to visualize the execution while feeling the chill of a cold-blooded killer.
Some other metaphors can be seen in story 12 or 16:
I am… a killer, a cold-hearted assassin (Metaphor)
I squeezed Earth mother‟s hand (Metaphor) and we double-timed it out of the park (S16)
Simile is a figure of speech in which two fundamentally dissimilar objects or concepts are explicitly compared through the use of "like" or "as"
There are 6 similes in story 1 of the data The example of simile is presented in the following:
Like a petrified mouse under the paw of a cat, the victim remains motionless (S1)
The story titled "Neck Snapping Time" is about a “fictional” character
Throughout the story, the killer is depicted as someone who relishes killing, a brutal figure whose actions drive the plot The author uses a potent simile, comparing the victim’s collapse to a mouse crushed by a cat, an image that conveys utter helplessness and fear This parallel underscores a core similarity among the victims: they are all attacked, tortured, stripped of strength and hope, and ultimately killed The simile serves as a key literary device that clarifies the consequences of violence and emphasizes the victim’s vulnerability within the narrative.
"To say much in a brief way" is a principle of concise writing that lets readers imagine the scene through restrained detail rather than violent imagery In life, violence and even murder occur, but the text relies on suggestion so the reader fills in the grim details The victim's pain remains, and the weak cannot resist This simile heightens emotional intensity, prompting readers to envision the perpetrator's cruelty toward the patient and to feel both indignation at the act and compassion for the victim.
Another example of simile is presented in story 6 of the data The example of simile is presented in the following:
Obviously I can‟t tell you everything but we use tiny little drones that look like insects (S6)
In the short story "Little Pricks In The Night," the author uses a simile to emphasize a tiny, insect-sized drone deployed in an assassination, reframing modern drones as surprisingly small and hard to detect The device's insect-like scale lets readers easily imagine its stealth and lethality, even if they never see it directly The simile serves two functions: it conveys a large amount of meaning in a concise image, and it helps readers visualize the drone’s diminutive size, making the victim harder to spot and defend against, thereby heightening the tension and illustrating how advanced, compact technology can amplify threat in a narrative.
This article argues that drones can carry lethal poisons undetected, turning assassination into something as subtle as a bite from a tiny insect It seeks to heighten emotional intensity, delivering a sense of suspense and danger to the reader The piece also challenges the fear of only large threats, underscoring that small things can be equally dangerous.
Many other simile can be found in other stories like
The pane bangs shut behind me and the sound is like a firework going off ( S12)
It was like the sound of breathing, like the beating of the heart or the ticking of a clock (S17)
We‟re like the sea , you and I (S15)
My mother's hand feels cold against my own; fragile as paper (S14) 4.2.3 Personification
Personification is a literary device that the writers use to add a human quality to things that are not human There is only one personification in story
2 of the data The example of personification is presented in the following:
“Sorry, it‟s this bloody road, so bumpy and bendy.”(S2)
This is the conversation of the two main characters of the story titled
"Electricidad" follows the love story of Ronald Russell and Cheryl as a taxi climbs along a sheer drop, their bodies pressed close while the road's peril presses in on them The dialogue here uses personification to express the road's challenging condition, with the driver referring to it as a “bloody road” that makes travel rough, difficult, and nearly alive with danger The road itself is imagined as an injured being, constantly sloping up and down and bleeding piece by piece, a metaphor that distorts the landscape into something felt rather than seen This personification serves two key purposes: it deepens the story’s meaning and adds heightened perception by turning the road into a vivid, unsettling image that stimulates the reader’s imagination, and it intensifies the emotional heartbeat of the narrative by mirroring the couple’s struggle against fear and fate as they ride.
Another example of personification is presented in story 7 of data The example of simile is presented in the following:
We'd enter through a glass porch, where cacti and succulents sunbathed under dusty panes, their greenery a stark contrast to the blackened stone walls (S7)
In Daydream Believer, a grandchild’s visit to a grandparent in a northern town unfolds through vivid nature imagery and deft personification The writer treats trees as sunbathers who sunbathe and even cacti and succulents as beings who know how to relax and enjoy the sun This playful personification invites imaginative pleasure, helping readers picture a beautiful landscape and feel drawn into the scene The sunbathed moment signals optimism and a lively mood, heightening emotional intensity and fostering a more positive outlook on life Together, these techniques make the image more vivid and engaging, enriching the overall atmosphere of Daydream Believer.
Another exaple of personification is in story 19
Her hazel eyes flashed angrily and she put her hand up to her forehead to shield them from the unforgiving lights (Personification) (S19)
Kennedy and Gioia (2007) define a symbol as a person, place, or thing in a narrative that conveys meanings beyond its literal sense In the data set, story 5 contains one symbol, and the following excerpt presents that symbol as an example of how symbolic meaning operates in the narrative.
"As surely as my name's Tobias Squire!" he cried, climbing out of the hole and coughing from the exertion His wizened face was framed by a heavy black overcoat, despite the warm spring day.
"Do you doubt me, sir?" he asked, his head tilted and his thin lips pressed into silent mirth He reached into his coat pocket and drew out a tin containing tobacco and cigarette papers.
This is the conversation of the two main characters of the story titled
In The Tale of Tobias Squire, the author’s encounter with an old man in a graveyard centers on the tomb of an unnamed prince; wizened features and a heavy black overcoat become symbolic devices that forge a gloomy, death-haunted atmosphere The explicit claim that "death is tragic" reinforces the mood and foregrounds mortality as a central theme This imagery also functions as a sculpted portrait of the god of death, inviting readers to imagine a mythic figure through its characteristic attributes, thereby deepening the tale’s sense of awe, inevitability, and haunting beauty.
Another symbol can be found in story 12 like
Hyperbole, or overstatement, is a rhetorical device that uses exaggeration to emphasize a point In the dataset, there is one instance of hyperbole found in story 10, illustrating how a single exaggerated claim can highlight a key idea within the narrative The example of hyperbole is presented in the following section, offering a clear demonstration of how exaggeration can amplify meaning in a story.
Papers, papers, papers Help, I‟m drowning in a sea of papers!
I really must do something about it! (S10)
This pieces of language contains a hyperbole because the author uses
"I'm drowning in a sea of papers!" uses hyperbole to convey being overwhelmed by paperwork and the surrounding clutter It also hints at the girl's untidy habits and a sense of hopelessness in facing a large pile of duties Although exaggerated, the expression is easily understood and relatable, inviting readers to picture an untidy, crowded workspace This vivid imagery heightens emotional intensity and draws readers into the girl's experience, making her frustration palpable.
Another example of hyperbole is presented in story 4 of the data The example of hyperbole is presented in the following:
The functions of stylistic devices in 20 English contemporary short
Figures of speech spark the reader's imagination as the story unfolds, making scenes feel exciting and alive Vivid imagery and carefully chosen details capture interest and pull readers deeper into the narrative Personification, a type of figure of speech, adds imaginative pleasure by giving inanimate objects human qualities There are many other literary devices—metaphor, simile, alliteration, and hyperbole—that writers use to enrich meaning, enhance mood, and improve SEO by naturally incorporating key terms like figures of speech, imagery, imagination, and personification into engaging, coherent text.
2 personifications in story 5 of the data The example of personification is presented in the following:
A long walk down a meandering single-track lane that seemed to fizzle out in the middle of nowhere reveals a surprising rural scene: a sizeable farm and a church tucked into the shadow of mature trees, with two cottages standing nearby The approach feels quiet and timeless as the church comes into view, its stone walls dimmed by shade while branches murmur above This secluded corner of the countryside blends farm life with an almost sacred stillness, offering a picturesque glimpse into rural life that invites exploration.
On a walk through the Norfolk countryside, the author encounters an old man at a graveyard, and their path leads to an ancient church hidden in a barely visible spot, surrounded by trees The route to reach it is challenging, and a gloomy day makes the church seem to stand in the shadows, as if it belongs to the darkness The author uses personification with the mature trees, whose growth from young shoots into towering guardians mirrors a life from childhood to adulthood, their shade thick enough to veil the sky and enclose the church in darkness The scene feels deserted and secluded, like an expedition into a remote landscape, stirring the reader’s imagination and inviting exploration of this enigmatic place.
Story 3 uses three figures of speech—metaphor, simile, and personification—in a sequence of sentences that express the character’s intense excitement and invite readers to imagine a vivid image of a man exhilarated by his lover Through these devices, especially the central metaphor, readers can sculpt the sensation and feel the rush of passion and anticipation in the scene.
“electric”, the excitement inside via the overstatement “skipped a beat” and
“It was incredible and completely unexpected; the sensations as our fingers touched was electric; my heart skipped a beat and I momentarily forgot to breathe” (S3)
These lines are crafted to spark imaginative pleasure as readers picture a silly yet sincere man in love, inviting them to step into the character's emotional world They can feel the characters' emotions through vivid storytelling, and while each reader's mental image may be unique, the underlying emotional core remains the same—joy, tenderness, and vulnerability that unite every reader's experience.
4.3.2 To bring an additional imagery
Imagery in literature uses words or pictures to describe ideas or situations, and figures of speech extend this effect by adding vivid imagery This makes abstract concepts concrete, guiding the reader’s imagination and enriching the narrative with a broader view of the story As readers picture scenes and sensations, the text offers a new perception beyond the literal meaning, transforming the work into a richer, more engaging experience.
I walked between rows of ancient, toppled and indecipherable gravestones toward a white marble tomb that outshone its neighbors like a supernova The colossal rectangular monument bore pure white marble with sporadic carved seals—a lion wearing a crown and a unicorn—yet carried only the date 1877, with no name, no motto, nothing else to tell its story Its stark lack of inscription deepened the mystery surrounding this grave marker.
In The Tale of Tobias Squire, the author uses two figures of speech to heighten the scene: a simile that links “a white stone tomb” with a supernova, creating vivid celestial imagery of a star-filled sky where one brilliant star outshines the others; and a paradox that juxtaposes a carved lion and unicorn with “one simple date” and the phrases “no name, no motto, nothing,” underscoring the tomb’s loneliness and the stark absence surrounding the deceased.
Another example of figure of speech which functions to bring an additional imagery to the readers is presented in the following:
They heard a sound like steam escaping, and a door slid open (S8)
Using metonymy, the phrase “a sound like steam escaping” draws readers into an imaginative image of steam venting from a container, letting the sound itself stand in for the scene The passage also employs personification with the verb “escape,” granting an inanimate thing—steam—a life-like action and a sense of movement Together, these literary devices deepen the imagery, offering a vivid sense of release and motion through sound symbolism.
“escaping”.As can be seen, figures of speech can help to increase the attractiveness of a literary work
Figures of speech can be used to convey an object in creating an emotion It also helps to emphasize the meaning of the sentence
Simile is a figure of speech that conveys a deeper meaning in a way that is more appealing and engaging for readers, using vivid comparisons to spark interest and emotion; when paired with paradox, it amplifies surprise and complexity, showcasing how simple likenesses can illuminate provocative ideas, as the following example demonstrates.
“I opened the door with trembling hands, closed my eyes and went in I could hear a sound like bellows Then a whisper, “Come over here, Martin.”
I walked across the carpet with my eyes still tightly closed, afraid of what I might see” (S7)
Martin’s visit to his ailing grandfather begins with his grandmother asking him to go upstairs to see him, which makes Martin feel worried and scared The grandfather lies sick in a room he has never entered before, and as Martin approaches, fear grows With trembling hands he closes his eyes and pushes the door open The author uses a simile—“I could hear a sound like bellows”—to emphasize the loud, breathy rhythm breaking the quiet space The breath is deep and powerful, almost magical, like the sound of bellows, yet it is countered by a paradox: a whisper, the patient’s weak voice These figures of speech heighten emotional intensity and cultivate a tense atmosphere of fear and curiosity around the encounter.
The simile in story 3 of the data also helps boost the readers‟ emotion
Then, how do you access your statements? You‟re stuffed Like a piglet in a chestnut factory (S10)
This datum contains simile as the writer mentions “a piglet in a chestnut factory” which indicates for a status of the character in the story It functions to add emotional intensity to the readers by conveying an assumption of a person who is stuffed with the duties at working places in a overloading situation.By this function, the readers not only read his statement as an informative statement, but it also provokes the readers‟ emotion since the writer assumed that the character‟s life is so busy that he/she is overloaded with duties
4.3.4 To say much in a brief compass
Figures of speech enable concise expression by letting the writer convey ideas without lengthy explanations, so readers can quickly grasp the intended meaning through the text In this way, figures of speech act as tools of concentration, distilling complex thoughts into a single, vivid image Two examples of similes that convey a great deal in a brief compass are presented below to illustrate how a compact comparison can capture meaning efficiently.
Two similes anchor the passage: first, the motionless victim is likened to a “petrified mouse under the paw of a cat,” signaling a hopeless situation; second, the lifeless body is described as “like a piece of meat,” underscoring death These images use sparse language rather than full storytelling, yet readers quickly grasp the implicit meaning and the sense of peril The result is a concise, powerful analysis of how metaphor conveys mood and fate with minimal words, illustrating effective use of similes in literary writing.
Another example of understatement with this function is presented in the following:
Well, seems the writer had financial problems of sorts, but this character he‟d encounter in his dreams would help out (S1)