A contrastive analysis of friendship related idioms in english and vietnamese

Under the light of contrastive analysis, the author discover the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms of friendship based on their syntactic and semantic fe

QUY NHON UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN THI KIM CHUNG

A CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS OF FRIENDSHIP -

RELATED IDIOMS IN ENGLISH AND

BỘ GIÁO DỤC VÀ ĐÀO TẠO

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC QUY NHƠN

NGUYỄN THỊ KIM CHUNG

I am also grateful to all the lecturers of courses for their scholarly knowledge and experience

I would also like to thank my dear friends, who supported me a lot during the time I take part in this course

Last but not least, I would like to express my special thanks to my family, who have given me their help and encouragement throughout my course and the study of my thesis

ABSTRACT

This research focused on English and Vietnamese idioms for friendship Under the light of contrastive analysis, the author discover the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms of friendship based

on their syntactic and semantic features The data used for analysis in this study were primarily gathered from dictionaries, books, magazines, and other sources It is concluded from an analysis of forms of idioms of friendship in English and Vietnamese that idioms are extremely important in communication Idioms are metaphorical expressions of ideas They add vibrancy and richness to the speakers' speeches This is the reason why the more skillfully a person uses idioms in his conversations, the more effectively he can establish his communicative relationship The thesis findings illustrate some implications for teachers and English learners from the use of linguistic features of idioms related to friendship in English, with a focus on the meanings of English idioms of friendship and a comparative analysis with Vietnamese ones Hopefully, the study will assist students and teachers in avoiding difficulties in translating idioms into Vietnamese and vice versa

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS viii

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF CHARTS x

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Aims and objectives 2

1.2.1 Aims 2

1.2.2 Objectives 2

1.3 Research questions 3

1.4 Scope of the study 3

1.5 Significance of the study 3

1.6 Organization of the study 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL BACKROUND 5

2.1 Literature review 5

2.2 Idioms 7

2.2.1 Definition of idiom 7

2.2.2 Idioms denoting friendship 12

2.3 Features of English Idioms 13

2.3.1 Syntactic features 13

2.3.2 Semantic features 18

2.4 Features of Vietnamese idioms 19

2.4.1 Syntactic features 19

2.4.2 Semantic features 22

2.5 Distinction between idioms and proverbs 23

2.5.1 Definition of proverbs 23

2.5.2 Distinction between idioms and proverbs 24

2.6 Culture and the Relationship between Language and Culture 24

2.6.1 Culture 24

2.6.2 Relationship between language and culture 26

CHAPTER 3 METHODS AND PROCEDURES 29

3.1 Research methods 29

3.2 Data collection 30

3.3 Data analysis 30

3.4 Validity and Reliability 30

CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 32

4.1 Syntactic and semantic features of idioms denoting friendship in English 32

4.1.1 Syntactic features 32

4.1.2 Semantic features 38

4.2 Syntactic and semantic features of idioms denoting friendship in Vietnamese 42

4.2.1 Syntactic features 43

4.2.2 Semantic features 46

4.3 Similarities and differences in syntactic and semantic features of idioms in English and Vietnamese 49

4.3.1 Similarities 49

4.3.2 Differences 50

4.4 Similarities and differences in the use of idioms in English and Vietnamese 57

4.4.1 Similarities 57

4.4.2 Differences 57

4.5 Friendship idioms in practical 57

4.5.1 In teaching 58

4.5.2 In daily life 59

4.5.3 In studying 59

4.5.4 Summary 61

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 63

5.1 Concluding remarks 63

5.2 Limitations of the study 64

5.3 Recommendations for further study 64

REFERENCES 66 APPENDIX

LIST OF TABLES

Number

of

Tables

4.1 Syntactic features of English idioms denoting Friendship 38

4.2 Syntactic features of Vietnamese idioms denoting

4.7 Parallel structures in English and Vietnamese IDF 51

4.8 Statistical analysis of syntactic features of English and

4.9 Statistical analysis of semantic features of English and

LIST OF CHARTS

Number

of

Charts

4.1 Rate of Syntactic features of English and Vietnamese

4.2 Statistical analysis of semantic features of English and

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

Language, as we all know, is an essential mode of communication in our daily lives It helps to transmit and preserve a people's or nation's cultural heritage The language of the people reflects cultural characteristics, traditions, religious beliefs, and customs Language and culture are inextricably linked to the development of states The meanings of a word and

a sentence differ in every country It includes literal, figurative, denotative, and narrow purposes

Idioms are essential in everyday life and cannot be overstated Idioms are difficult-to-understand expressions or phrases that do not convey the same meaning as their words An idiom is a term that is commonly used It not only helps us understand a conversation, but it also provides us with a much better sense of the emotions and values that people are expressing In every language, idioms are regarded as an intriguing and widespread phenomenon

As a result, understanding the meaning of idioms and how to use them is critical for learning a language

Each nation's language has its own similar and different concepts in many fields of life, such as humane values, behavioural standards, religious beliefs, customs and traditions, etc A language's vocabulary system is made

up of words and expressions, including idioms Idioms are considered unique components of a language's vocabulary system because they reflect each nation's culturally distinct characteristics, including material and spiritual values Idioms are metaphorical expressions of ideas They add radiance and intensity to the speakers' speeches This is why the better a person uses idioms

in his conversations, the more effectively he can establish his communicative

relationship

Another thing to keep in mind is that the current trend favours proverbial and idiomatic usage As a result, understanding how to use idioms and proverbs effectively inappropriate situations is becoming increasingly important Furthermore, the most notable benefit of idioms and proverbs is that they provide users with an entirely new way of expressing concepts linguistically Idioms and proverbs are said to be the colour and vitality of a language Therefore, many researchers have long expressed their concerns about expressions, and there have been numerous studies about idioms, such

as idioms relating to animals, plants, and relationships However, there has been little research into the idioms of friendship Thus, this thesis analyses friendship idioms in English and Vietnamese to better understand the formal characteristics and expressive value of the idioms of the two countries

1.2 Aims and objectives

1.2.1 Aims

The study is conducted to discover the syntactic and semantic characteristics of idioms relating to friendship in English and Vietnamese to help readers understand deeply the meaning of idioms denoting friendship in cultural aspect

1.3 Research questions

The study attempts to seek an answer to the following questions:

 What are the syntactic and semantic features of friendship-related idioms in English and Vietnamese?

 What are the similarities and differences in syntactic and semantic features of friendship-related idioms in English and Vietnamese?

1.4 Scope of the study

The author have found idioms such an interesting English aspect that is chosen as the topic of the study Idioms in both English and Vietnamese have been investigated from a variety of perspectives such as idioms by clothes, idioms denoting work, idioms denoting human feelings, etc, but no one has studied idioms on friendship That's why I chose this topic Furthermore, the author collected 90 English idioms and 85 Vietnamese ones However, of the total idioms in the 2 languages, 35 idioms is incomprehensible to the author Therefore, in the present study, only 140 idioms (70 English and 70 Vietnamese ones) related to friendship were selected as the data for the study For example, in the idiom “Be an item”, the author understands the literal meaning of “item” as a single thing, especially one thing in a list, group, or set

of things but not the symbolic meaning of the idiom

1.5 Significance of the study

Theoretically, this research contributes to the study of language and cultural values in English and Vietnamese idioms It also clarifies the theory

of idioms in general and idioms on friendship in particular

Practically, the finding of this study points out the similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms related to friendship It also assists English learners in understanding the meaning of idioms and

developing teaching materials to increase communication efficiency Furthermore, it also aids everyone in avoiding culture shock in cross-cultural communication

1.6 Organization of the study

This study consists of five chapters as follows:

Chapter 1, Introduction, mentions the rationale, the aim, the objective,

the research questions, the scope, the significance, and the organization

Chapter 2, Literature review and Theoretical background, provides the

previous studies relating to the field of the research and presents some theoretical background

Chapter 3, Methodology, gives the research methods, data collection, and

data analysis to conduct the research thesis

Chapter 4, Findings and discussion, analyzes the syntactic and semantic

features of idioms relating to friendship in English and Vietnamese

Chapter 5, Conclusions, summarises the findings, presents the

limitations of the study and suggests some further research

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

BACKROUND

2.1 Literature review

Idioms add to the beauty of language, but they also play an essential role

in successful daily communication Idioms give language colour Idioms contain a wealth of information about a country or culture Idioms are now recognized as an intriguing and prevalent phenomenon in all languages

Up to now, there have been a number of researchers making investigations into English and Vietnamese idioms In English, there have been many books and dictionaries such as “Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms” by Cowie (1994), “Idioms and Idiomaticity” by Fernando (1996),

“Idiom Structure in English” by Makkai (1972), “Words and Idioms” by Smith (1925), “Problems in the Analysis of Idioms” by Weinreich (1969), etc

In addition, there are some more collections of idioms, such as “American Idioms and Some Phrases Just for Fun” by Swick (1994) In fact, idiomaticity

is not a new subject in linguistic study There has been plenty of work on it, such as “Essential Idioms in English” by Dixon (1983) or “Idioms for Everyday Use” by Broukai (2001)

In Vietnam, Vietnamese researchers have so far paid great attention to idioms There have been many authors who have carried out their studies on idioms Nguyen Cong Duc (1995), Hoang Van Hanh (2008), Dang Nguyen Giang (2013) and many books written by typical authors such as Nguyen Nhu

Y (1992), Nguyen Luc & Luong Van Dang (2009), etc

Some studies relate to the field of the study “A contrastive analysis of friendship related idioms in English and Vietnamese” such as: “An

investigation into syntactic and semantic features of idioms denoting work in English and Vietnamese” by Nguyen Thi Minh Thu (2011), “An investigation into the use of conceptual metaphor in English and Vietnamese idioms denoting human feelings” by Nguyen Hoang Nam (2012) and “A study of idioms by clothes in English and Vietnamese from a perspective of components” by Nguyen Thi Van (2018)

The study conducted by Nguyen Thi Minh Thu, English and Vietnamese idioms denoting work expresses their meaning via semantic transfer as metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole and simile They were grouped into three grammatical features related to the semantic mechanism: symmetry, comparative, and metaphorically descriptive However, this study has a limitation that cannot cover all constructions and meanings of English and Vietnamese idioms denoting work under discussion because of the burden of time and reference materials and the constraints faced by the researcher

Nam's research was carried out by combining describing quantities and qualities The author found that conceptual metaphor participated in the process of creating the meaning of the idioms and the use of conceptual metaphors in English and Vietnamese idioms denoting human feelings in terms of happiness, sadness, anger and fear This research thesis only focused

on more conceptual metaphors for idioms denoting human feelings in terms

of happiness, sadness, anger and fear without mentioning other fields such as love, pride, shame, lust, surprise, etc

Similarly, Van's study used description, componential analysis, contrastive, and experimental methods The researcher uncovered how the components of idioms by clothes are organized structurally and semantically

in English and Vietnamese and gave some implications for teaching and learning idioms by clothes through component analysis And although the

author tried her best to finish the thesis in the best way, certain limitations are inevitable Firstly, this research thesis couldn't describe all clothing idioms' structural and semantic features because of limited time Secondly, this research thesis just stopped studying the structural and semantic elements of the idioms by clothes and not yet mentioning other fields such as: studying pragmatics of idioms by clothes or approaching idioms from a cultural perspective

In addition, there have been a few other papers that deal with idioms related to animals, human body parts, numbers, spatial verbs, etc

Many idioms and explanations of meaning are provided in these books and research papers, along with illustrative examples It raises the reader's awareness of the meaning of each idiom As a result, they can communicate more flexibly and skillfully

2.2 Idioms

2.2.1 Definition of idiom

An idiom is an integral part of a language, and it has its characteristics, the cultural essence of each ethnic group Idioms were formed for a long time with a neat form and rich and deep content

English is very rich in idiomatic expressions It is difficult to speak or write English without using idioms An important fact that must be considered is that idioms are colloquial expressions, as many people believe They can appear in a formal style and slang They can also occur in poetry or the language of the journalist, the writer and the Bible

The concept of idioms among researchers of each country has an individual difference; of course, in the research conducted by Vietnamese linguists and English ones, idioms in two languages also exist differently

2.2.1.1 In English

The word “idiom” covers many meanings in English, including specific modes of expression, native tongue, and multi-word units with non-transparent meanings The common denominator here is the notion of “inside knowledge” Although the author will focus on the third sense of idiom, it is interesting to see that senses one and two give clues to the unique nature of idioms in the semantically opaque multi-word unit-sense of the word For it is precisely the people who do not possess the “native tongue”, thus sometimes feeling shut off from the mode of expression of native English speakers, who often make others aware of the conversational potholes in the field of language: The congenitally deaf and the (foreign) learners of English are the two principal target groups of idiom dictionaries As an example, the first major dictionary of idioms to appear in America was published by the American School for the Deaf in 1966 Its second edition (1987) was edited

by Hungarian-born Adam Makkai, whose doctoral dissertation entitled

“Idiom Structure in English” remains one of the most thorough works published on the subject

Idioms are considered by many authors to be fixed phrases whose overall meaning cannot be inferred from individual elements (Duden Universal; Burger, 2007, pp.11-12; Fleischer et al., 2001, pp.108-109)

According to Angus Stevenson (2010, p.16199), “an idiom is a group of words established by usage as having a meaning not deducible from those of the individual words” It means the meaning of an idiom can not be inferred from the meaning of individual words in that idiom For example, “under the weather” can be understood as “you stay under the weather” If it can be figuratively comprehended, the phrase's meaning is “you feel sick maybe

because the weather changes erratically”

Jackson & Amvela (2007, p.65) described that “an idiom may be defined

as a phrase, the meaning of which can not be predicted from the individual meanings of the morphemes it comprises” Having the same point of view, Seidle and McMordie (1988, p.13) explained idiom as “a number of words which, when taken together, have a different meaning from the individual

meanings of each word” For instance, the collocation of kick and bucket

creates an idiom meaning die that is not determinable systematically from the

meanings of kick and bucket This idiom or phrasal lexeme is formally identical with the phrase kick the bucket, the meaning of which is

systematically determinable based on the meaning of the lexemes that

comprise it - hit a specific type of container for liquids with their foot

Whereas McCarthy and O'Dell (2010, p.6) clarify that idioms are a “fixed combination of words whose meaning is often difficult to guess from the meaning of each individual word” In other words, an idiom is a group of words that create different meanings when becoming one We cannot directly define it as a separate word but need the understanding to know the meaning behind those words

Fernando (1996, p.30) defined “an idiom as an indivisible unit whose components cannot be varied or varied only within definable limits” This means that no other words can be substituted for those comprising Nor are the words of an idiom usually combinable

As can be seen from the above definitions, there are numerous ways to define an idiom In general, most linguists agree that an idiom is a fixed expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of its individual words Thus, idioms oppose free structures (Fleischer, 2001, p.108)

or free phrases (Burger, 2007, p.12) According to Burger (2007), idioms have the following common characteristics: 1) Idioms consist of at least two words

or more; 2) The components of an idiom can only be understood within the context of that idiom, if an element changes, the meaning of the idiom will be lost, misunderstood or become meaningless; 3) The difference between linguistic meaning and idiomatic meaning: the larger the difference, the higher the idiomaticity

2.2.1.2 In Vietnamese

In Vietnamese, idioms are understood by most authors as fixed phrases/languages/combinations of words (Hoang Phe, 2003, p.915; Nguyen Thien Giap, 2002, p.77; Mai Ngoc Chu, 2015, p.190; Hoang Van Hanh, 2004, p.27) and have symbolic value in terms of meaning (Mai Ngoc Chu, 2015, p.1900) In addition, Hoang Phe (2003) also mentioned that it is not possible to explain the overall meaning of an idiom by the meaning of the words that make

it up Among the definitions of the above authors, we find that Hoang Van Hanh's view on idioms (2004, p.27) most fully expresses the understanding of idioms: It is “a type of word combination that is fixed, stable in form - structure, complete and glossy in meaning, widely used in daily communication, especially

in oral speech” Thus, it can be seen that idioms have two outstanding features: stability, fixed in lexical composition and structure, completeness and gloss in meaning (Hoang Van Hanh, 2004, pp.28-29)

In his research, Hoang Van Hanh (2004, p.38) gave the characteristics used as criteria to identify idioms and proverbs, thereby highlighting the difference between the two These features are morphological and structural, rhyming, and counterpointing; function expression definition identifier; the function of expressing cognitive morphology and semantic features In the first three characteristics, idioms have a clear distinction from proverbs While idioms are fixed word combinations with morphological relationships, proverbs are fixed sentences with syntactic relationships Idioms identify

things, phenomena, processes, represent concepts by symbolic images, and proverbs identify things, events, situations and express judgments by symbolic images In terms of semantic features, two layers of semantics are created by comparison and metaphor in both idioms and proverbs

Nguyen Thien Giap (2002, pp.79-86) distinguishes idioms from nominal terms and free phrases He distinguishes idioms from identifiers based on their content and syntactic characteristics and free words in terms of form and meaning completeness Specifically, an idiom is an evocative name for a particular phenomenon with a specific meaning, formed to the extent that reflection requires evaluation and expression or encounters a narrative relationship Nominal terms are the pure names of things, expressing the relationship between races and types simultaneously, having both general and specific areas of meaning, formed in the range of human intellectual activities, rarely related narrative system Idioms differ from free phrases in their completeness in meaning, and they are syntactic in relation

Ho Le (2003, p.110) defined idioms are word combinations (including many words combined) that are solid in structure and glossy in meaning, used

to describe an image, a phenomenon, a character, or a state In this concept, the author raised the content and form of idioms as well as emphasized the glossy characteristics of the idiom's content

According to Dai Xuan Ninh (1978, p.223), idioms are a fixed structure inherent in speech and express a complete concept as a word It is widely used among people as a form of concise expression that is rich in images The concept of idioms of Nguyen Duc Dan (1986, p.1) was that idioms are stable units of form; they are concepts that reflect the ways of speaking, thinking, and peculiarities of the nation The author emphasizes the standard format and ethnicity of the idiom

Idioms were conceptualized in the following way by Nguyen Van Tu (1978, p.178): Idioms are fixed phrases in which words that have lost their independence to a high degree of meaning combine to form a solid, complete block their meaning does not have to be created by the meaning of the elements (words) This word's meaning is either symbolic or non-existent Their meanings differ from the words' meanings, but they can also be explained by etymology

These concepts clarify the characteristics of idioms: idioms are fixed phrases with a stable, coherent, inseparable structure and are available units in language Each idiom has a specific, complete meaning used to name things, states, properties and actions

In general, these linguists and dictionaries have different ways to define idioms but share similar ideas Based on McCarthy and O'Dell, it can be seen idiom is composed of many other words forming a sentence but not its literal meaning An idiom is used a lot by native speakers in spoken and written, so understanding the meaning of Idiom will help you use English more effectively

2.2.2 Idioms denoting friendship

For most people, friendship is essential Sometimes, we all need a shoulder to cry on, someone to discuss our hopes and fears with, and someone

to laugh with after a stressful day Unlike colleagues, acquaintances, and even romantic partners, good friends can always be relied upon to be there through thick and thin Hence, friendship is without a doubt one of the most important aspects of our lives So, what is friendship? According to Stevenson (2010, p.12985), friendship is “a relationship between friends” It means a state in which two people are friends Based on the definition of friendship above, we

can say that idiom denoting friendship are idioms consist of connection and comrade of friendship Therefore, definition of the idea of “FRIENDSHIP – RELATED” found on the idioms denoting the meaning of friendship For example, idiom “to build bridges” relates to promote friendly relations between people or groups

2.3 Features of English Idioms

2.3.1 Syntactic features

According to the concept depicted in the definition of idioms, an idiom is

a group of fixed phrases/languages/combinations of words (Hoang Phe, 2003, p.915; Nguyen Thien Giap, 2002, p.77; Mai Ngoc Chu, 2015, p.190; Hoang Van Hanh, 2004, p.27) Each word is regarded as a component of an idiom, and an idiom can consist of at least two components Idioms are structurally and lexically restricted; therefore, the components of idioms cannot be added, omitted or replaced They cannot be changed or varied in how literal expressions are typically diverse in both speech and writing In both English and Vietnamese, the stability in idioms is very high

Bell, R.T (1974, p.2) identifies some structural features essential in recognising idioms Some of their characteristics are:

 Alteration of Grammatical Rules: The idiomatic expression is not always grammatical, but it is established, accepted and used by native language speakers with a fixed structure and meaning E.g.,

It's been ages since we met (singular with a plural noun);

 Conventional Phrases: Idioms are unique expressions that are almost

known and agreed upon by all the members of a particular

community E.g., Once in a blue moon (rarely, infrequently);

 Figurativeness: The fundamental characteristic of idiomatic

expressions is that the words are used metaphorically Therefore, the surface structure has a minor role to play in understanding the

meaning of the whole expression For example, in the idiom to bury

the hatchet (to become friendly again after a disagreement), the

meanings of the words 'to bury' and 'the hatchet' is different from the

meaning of the whole expression

 Phrasal Verbs: These are the most common type of idioms in English Many of them carry idiomatic meanings that cannot be inferred from the form unless the phrase is already known

However, Fraser has specified the idioms between those which are able

to undergo all the grammatical changes and those which are unable to undergo the most minor grammar changes at all (Fraser, 1970, p.33, Foundations of language) Therefore, some idioms are more flexible and can

be made changes without losing their idiomatic meaning This means that idioms are only fixed in some of their parts but not all Idioms are expressions not subjected to analysis, and only some syntactic changes may be carried out

in them The idioms which can easily be subjected to syntactic changes are more flexible Tense changes within idioms can be possibly made in most idioms, for they indicate the animation of the actions in different tenses on the person's mind

For example: keep in touch => kept in touch (to maintain

communications with someone) Besides, some idioms can be broken or

changed more or less in their structures For example, we sometimes say: like

mother like daughter/ like father like son

In terms of structures, the central part of an idiom can be nouns (two

peas in a pod), verbs (to stick to one's last), adjectives (nearest and dearest)

or prepositions (with open arms) Each idiom has a stable structure and

meaning; an idiom can have a regular structure, an irregular or even a grammatically incorrect structure Firstly, idioms that have a regular structure have common forms, but there is no connection between the meaning of each

component and that of the whole unit, for example, tell tales out of school (to say to secrets or spread rumours) Secondly, the idioms can be groups of

words with unconventional forms, but their meaning can be worked out through the meaning of individual words such as: make your enemy your friend According to the rule of grammar, the structures of the verb 'make' are

make somebody do something and make somebody/something + Adj

However, in this case, the idiom does not need to obey the grammatical rule

to make sense; it can still be understood (make your enemy become your friend) Finally, the idioms can be groups of words that both are grammatically incorrect in form and irregular in meaning The structure is grammatically inaccurate, and the meaning is not precisely expressed by

gathering the meaning of each member word, such as: Be up to no good (doing or planning something wrong or dishonest) The structure of the above

idioms can be written as “verb + preposition + adjective” In English grammar, typically, adjectives never come after prepositions individually; however, as in an idiom, this case is acceptable

In short, in terms of structural features, firstly, an idiom is a set expression, and any changes in the internal structure of the idiom can make it lose the idiomatic meaning Secondly, idioms may take various forms, including noun phrases, verb phrases, preposition phrases, adjective phrases, etc Concerning structures, the idiom can have a regular, irregular or even incorrectly grammatical structure

2.3.1.1 Noun phrase

According to George Yule (2015, p.35), a noun phrase is a group of

words that intertwine with the core of nouns and function as a subject, object and complement in a sentence Douglas (2002) says that a phrase with a noun

as its head is a noun phrase He said that the head can be preceded by determiners, such as the, a, her and can be accompanied by modifiers-elements that describe or classify whatever the head refers to

The components that make up the word list cluster include the modifiers- Head noun-postmodifiers

pre- Modifiers in front of the main noun called pre-modifiers can be Articles (Terms), Quantitative words (Quantitative), Nouns, possessive pronouns (Nouns/ Possessive pronouns) ; Adjective; Participle (V-ing

 Finite Verb Phrase: If a sentence has just one verb phrase, it is a finite verb phrase The head verb is finite, and either comes in present or past form

 Nonfinite Verb Phrase

In this type of verb phrase, the head verb is participle, gerund, or infinitive There are various functions verb phrases perform They serve as phrase heads, as predicates, modifiers, compliments, and objects Verb

phrases also function as noun phrase modifiers, containing a word and phrase, and describing noun or noun phrase They also work as adjective phrase complements, and verb phrase complements, according to O'Dell & McCarthy (2010, pp.81-89)

2.3.1.3 Adjective phrase

In English grammar, an adjective phrase is a group of words that functions as an adjective in a sentence An adjective head word may be accompanied by modifiers, determiners, and/or qualifiers (all of which are called dependents) It also known as an adjectival phrase

Adjective phrases modify nouns They may be attributive (appearing before the noun) or predicate (appearing after a linking verb), but not all adjectives can be used in both positions, according to Henk van Riemsdijk & István Kenesei (2013)

2.3.1.4 Preposition phrase

According to Terry O' Brien (2011), prepositional phrases typically consist of a preposition followed by a noun group/phrase Prepositional phrases occur with a range of functions, including:

 Adverbial (how, when, where) in clause structure E.g., “on the train”

in “We met on the train”

 The modifier in noun group/phrase structure E.g., “with two children”

in “A couple with two children”

 Modifier in adjective group/phrase structure E.g., “with red hair” in

“The boy with red hair”

2.3.1.5 Simple sentence structures

Quirk R and S Greenbaum (1990, p.166): “A simple sentence is the sentence that consists of only one clause”

Alexander (1988, p.4) writes: “The smallest sentence unit is the simple sentence A simple sentence normally has one finite verb It has a subject and

a predicate”

E.g Mary and her boyfriend are doctors

S V C

Structurally, there are usually two main types of the simple sentence

 A complete simple sentence is a sentence that has one subject and one predicate (Also called two-member sentences)

 A special simple sentence is a sentence that has one subject or a verb; sometimes, it is called an incomplete simple sentence (Or one - member sentence) E.g Look!

2.3.2 Semantic features

Languages are formed of words; nevertheless, the meaning of each forming element is not combined Kramsch stated: “The meaning of an idiom was the special chemical mixture of the meaning of all components, which is completely new in quality” (Kramsch, C 2000, p.63) Therefore, it is crucial

to understand idioms metaphorically The meaning is the most important aspect when discussing semantic features of idioms The primary characteristic of idioms is the figurative meaning that helps distinguish

whether a fixed expression is an idiom For example: Read somebody like a

book (to understand someone very well, you can know what exactly they are

feeling or thinking without having to ask), and its Vietnamese translation

equivalent is “Đi guốc trong bụng” (to read somebody like a book)

In case the meaning of an idiom is either partly (motivated idioms) or completely different from the meaning of all components (non-motivated idioms), the meaning of idioms cannot be guessed from the meaning of their

components (Kunin, A.V., 2006) However, in some cases of partial difference, their figurative meaning is not entirely different from the literal

one, for example: new one in, old one out (có mới nới cũ), etc

In addition, idioms can convey positive, neutral, or negative meanings

In terms of positive meaning, an example can be seen: share somebody's

sorrow and mirth (someone shares sorrow and happiness or advantages and

disadvantages each other) As for idioms expressing neutral meaning, some

examples are shown: two peas in a pod (to be very similar) and make friends

(to establish a link of friendship with someone) Concerning negative

meaning, some typical examples of idioms have bitten the hand that feeds one (to do harm to someone who does good things for you) and stab someone in

the back (to harm someone by treachery or betrayal of trust)

To sum up, idioms can be motivated, partially motivated and motivated Besides, idiomatic expressions can convey positive, neutral, or negative meanings Idioms have high evocativeness because the speaker in conversation usually uses utterances that express his attitude or emotion For instance, when talking about similar people tending to associate with each

non-other, the idiom birds of a feather may be used

2.4 Features of Vietnamese idioms

In Vietnamese, idioms are considered exceptional language units because they reflect Vietnamese cultural characteristics Structural and semantic features also distinguish the forms and contents of idioms

2.4.1 Syntactic features

Most Vietnamese linguists have had the same opinion about the forms of Vietnamese idioms Nguyen Van Tu (1976) said, “Idioms are fixed expressions whose word components do not have their own individual

meanings and become a solid block” He emphasized the combination of the components forming the meaning of idioms Nguyen Thien Giap, (1975) considered an idiom as a fixed expression Although Nguyen Duc Dan, (1986) did not focus on the forms of Vietnamese idioms, he dealt with the fixation of idioms He said, “Idioms are language units which have fixed forms” Hoang Van Hanh (1994) attached particular importance to the components forming idioms He states that an idiom is a fixed group of words whose form is unchanged

In short, Hoang Van Hanh's view on idioms (2004, p.27) that Vietnamese idioms are fixed groups of words whose forms are unchanged: the fixed combination comes from settled words and expressions such as bắt

cá hai tay (to run after two hares), mèo mù vớ cá rán (The devil looks after his

own), etc The fixation shows that we cannot change the order of words or use

synonyms (similar words) to replace any idiom components casually This is

an essential feature helping us to realize idioms quickly However, some fixed

expressions are not idioms, such as bánh xe lịch sử (the wheel of history), gia

đình văn hóa (good family), etc Thus, so as to realize an idiom correctly, we

cannot only look at this feature but also other ones

The structure of idioms in Vietnamese is mainly a phrase structure including noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases

In conlusion, noun phrase is a free word combination in which the constituent elements are linked together according to the main-subordinate relationship, and the main element is a noun or a combination equivalent to the noun The structure of a noun phrase consists of three components: the pre-subordinate, the head noun, and the post-subordinate

E.g., in the idiom “treo đầu dê, bán thịt chó” (He cries wine and sells vinegar), “đầu dê” and “thịt chó” is the head noun, “treo” and “bán” is the

pre-subordinate

2.4.1.2 Verb phrase (VP)

According to Diep Quang Ban (1998, pp.63-80), verb phrases are made

up of verbs combined with some other related words There are some verbs that need other words to have their full meaning Theoretically, verb phrases are more complex than verbs but function in sentences exactly like verbs Thus, the verb phrases also take over the predicate in the sentence The structure of a verb phrase consists of 3 main parts: the pre-subordinate, the head verb, and the post-subordinate The pre-subordinate has the function of modifying the central part, with meanings such as continuing, preventing or encouraging The post-subordinate complements the main verb in the verb

phrase about the place, time, cause, purpose, etc E.g “làm bạn mất bạn” (make friends, lose friends), “làm, mất” are head verbs, “bạn” is a pre-

subordinate

2.4.1.3 Adjective phrase (Adj.P)

According to Diep Quang Ban (1998, pp.81-84), the definition of adjectives is words used to describe characteristics, properties of things, phenomena, and actions Adjectives can be used with other words to form adjective phrases Adjective phrases include the adjective as the central

position and other auxiliary components The structure consists of

pre-subsection + head adj + post-pre-subsection E.g “Càng đông, càng vui” (The more, the merrier) , đông, vui are the head adjective, càng is a pre-

subordinate

2.4.1.4 Parallel structure

Parallel structure refers to the same word pattern within a sentence by repeating a chosen grammatical form It emphasizes the same level of importance of multiple ideas or information given in the same sentence If there are two or more numbers of information in a sentence, the grammatical form of the first information must be followed to express the remaining ideas

In a parallel structure, multiple information is usually connected by coordinating conjunctions A parallel structure can be constructed in word, phrase or clause level in different sentences, according to Routledge (2002, pp.4-6), as in “Buôn có bạn, bán có phường” This idiom has a parallel structure because both sides of each idiom are phrases and separated by

commas “Buôn” and “bán” are all similar in terms of verb

2.4.2 Semantic features

There are quite a few different opinions about the semantic features of Vietnamese idioms According to Nguyen Van Menh, (1971), an idiom introduces an image, a phenomenon, a state, a personality, an attitude, etc This opinion is quite simple and general Nguyen Van Tu, (1976) said, “The meaning of an idiom does not come from individual components which may have their images or not Its meaning can be different from the meaning of each component or does not come from each original word” Nguyen Thien Giap (1985) focused on the basic semantic features of idioms: Being rich in imagery is a fundamental feature of idioms Idioms express concepts basing

on specific images and symbols The imagery of idioms is made from its metaphor and comparison

Although there are different ideas about the semantic features of idioms, Vietnamese linguists have all shared the same point of view: Firstly, the meaning of an idiom is a perfect whole that does not come from the meanings

of individual components added Secondly, the meaning of an idiom expresses the reflection of things or concepts Thirdly, the meaning of an idiom is usually figurative and descriptive

Many linguists affirm that idioms have their own figurative and imaginary meanings; nevertheless, we should not consider this as an absolute fact In Vietnamese, there are also some idioms that have literal sense coming from the

meanings of their components They may be comparative idioms such as nát như

tương (as pasty as soy), bám như đỉa đói (to stick like a limpet), whose imagery

comes from the images compared with activities or properties Some

Sino-Vietnamese idioms such as bán tín bán nghi (half doubtful) and bách phát bách

trúng (to hit the mark one hundred times out of one hundred) also have literal

sense basing on the meanings of their components

2.5 Distinction between idioms and proverbs

2.5.1 Definition of proverbs

It is important to spend some time distinguishing between idioms and proverbs Although many people believe the line between them is fragile and hazy, it is undeniable that there must be some plausible and significant points that can tell them apart According to Ashby (2001, p.511), proverbs were defined as “a short well-known sentence or phrase that gives advice or says something is generally true in life” Vu Ngoc Phan (2000, p.39) notably considered a proverb as “a complete saying expressing one idea of comment,

experience, morality, justice or criticism” Some Vietnamese proverbs are

“Ngọt mật chết ruồi”, “Con có cha như nhà có nóc”, etc It is also worth noting that a proverb is one of the most significant contributions to each country's folk culture, not just the language People can perceive a nation's lands, people, and humanity tradition through its treasure of proverbs

2.5.2 Distinction between idioms and proverbs

There are some distinctions that can be made between idioms and proverbs Proverbs, in particular, are short but popular phrases or sentences that express a judgment, provide useful advice or reveal an amoral or empirical truth about life They are widely regarded as having three major functions: educational, perceptive, and aesthetic On the other hand, Idioms primarily serve the purposes of naming, depicting things, properties, or various phenomena, and so on They do not, in general, pass judgment, offer advice, or state universal truths To put it another way, idioms rarely serve perceptive or educational purposes

Furthermore, we can distinguish proverbs from idioms by examining their grammatical structures Idioms are just phrases that serve as parts of sentences (e.g., “smell a rat”, “on ice”, etc.), whereas proverbs are complete phrases or sentences that can convey an entire idea (e.g., “Where there is a will, there is a way” Idioms, on the other hand, are only related to words

In short, while proverbs and idioms share many characteristics, they can

be distinguished regarding functions and structures

2.6 Culture and the Relationship between Language and Culture

2.6.1 Culture

The word “culture” has many different definitions It can be considered

as an art form that includes music, drama, etc It can also be known as

traditional food, clothes or even worship Everyone has his own definition for the term “culture”

As Edward Tylor, a famous British anthropologist, noted in his book

“Primitive Culture” (1871, p.1), culture “is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom and any other capacities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” Geertz (1973, p.89) claimed that culture “denotes a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed

in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life”

Another definition from Nguyen Quang (1998, p.3) is “Culture is a shared background (for example, national, ethnic, religious) resulting from a common language and communication style, customs, belief, attitude and values Culture in this text does not refer to art, music, literature, food, clothing style, etc It refers to the informal and often hidden patterns of human interactions, expressions, and viewpoints that people in one culture share The hidden nature of culture has been compared to an iceberg, most of which is hidden underwater Like the iceberg, much of the influence of culture on an individual cannot be seen The part of a culture that is exposed is not always that which creates cross-cultural difficulties; the hidden aspects of culture have significant effects on behaviour and interactions with others”

To simplify and make it more understandable, culture can be defined as the products of people, the characteristics of a specific group of people, defined by everything including both spiritual and material features such as language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music, arts, architecture, and so on Culture has a large influence on human life, which cannot be seen ultimately According to Li (2005, p.23), many cultural experts believe that culture has

four basic and notable characteristics:

To begin with, culture is not a type of biological or natural inheritance but rather something that is learned or inherited socially and gradually Hudson (1970, p.74) concurred with this point, stating that culture should be regarded as “socially acquired knowledge”

Second, culture never belongs to any one person in particular Yes, it is shared by all members of a community

Furthermore, as Geertz (1973, p.89) asserts, culture is a “symbolic meaning system” Language is one of the most critical parts of that unique system, and it can be compared to a vital factor, serving as an essential medium for transmitting much of culture

Last but not least, culture is a “unified system”, which means that its constituent parts are inextricably related and linked to one another

In a nutshell, culture is all of the tangible values that humans have created against the backdrop of the natural world Culture is commonly defined as literature and art forms such as poetry, fine art, theatre, and cinema

in everyday life Another widely held belief is that culture is a way of life that includes food, clothing, behaviour, and even thoughts and received knowledge As a result, we can categorize people as cultured or uncultured

2.6.2 Relationship between language and culture

Language and culture have an inseparable connection Language is the means of transport of culture, and culture belongs to language as well It is said that written and spoken language is the essence of a single cultural nation Culture is progressed and preserved for the generation in both spoken and written languages The change and development of language always keep

up with the evolution and development of culture

Language and culture are recapped as having an inextricable and dialectical relationship Brown (1994, p.165) proposed that “language is a part of a culture and a culture is a part of a language, the two are intricately interwoven so that one cannot separate the two without losing the significance of either language or culture” Kramsch (2000, p.3) stated that

“language is the principal means whereby we conduct our social lives When

it is used in communication contexts, it is bound up with culture in multiple and complex ways”

To put it another way, culture and language are inextricably linked Language can be regarded as a crucial and absolutely essential component of culture, as Li (2005, p.25) stated, “without language, culture would not be possible” It is an essential vehicle for transmitting a large amount of culture

On the other hand, culture has become crucially significant to language, having a major impact on the creation and development of language Learning a language, whether it is one's first, second, or foreign language, appears to be a difficult task that also entails learning a new culture Language learning and cultural learning are always happening at the same time There aren't many squabbles about it

In short, culture has a significant influence on language, which faithfully serves as a mirror reflecting the majority of culture They are inextricably and naturally intertwined As a result, if two countries have different cultures, there will be many differences in their languages However, it should be remembered that no culture is completely isolated and separately unique People from different cultures can sometimes share similar ways of thinking and viewing certain issues “There are important resemblances that stem in part from diffusion and in part from the fact that all cultures are built around biological, psychological and social

characteristics common to all mankind” (Li, 2005, p.26) Universal concepts and culturally similar points are undoubtedly reflected in languages We can find some concepts or cases that are coincidentally similar or even the same

in two different languages, such as English and Vietnamese

For example:

Da trắng như trứng gà bóc (As white as sheet)

Through both of the above examples, we see that the same colour as white, the Vietnamese people use the white colour of boiled eggs to compare with skin colour, intended to complement, and the English use the white colour of the bed linen to criticize pale, white skin

In short, the similarity is that both English and Vietnamese pay attention

to the white colour and use the white colour of something to compare with sin colour, and due to different cultures, they have other ways to express